Full Length Research Paper
ABSTRACT
The present study involved the processing and testing of two formulations of mango doughnuts. The mango pulp formulations were combined either with maize or rice flour. The dough from both formulations was fried in immersion oil using a gas-fueled fritter and a crepe maker in controlled conditions. Levels of moisture, titrable acidity, total ash, fat, proteins, total sugars and beta-carotene were determined for the dough and for the mango doughnuts by using physicochemical standard methods. Sensory evaluation of the end-products with respect to aroma, color, taste and texture were performed. Results showed that the moisture contents of mango doughnuts obtained using the gas fryer which contained maize (DMMgf) or rice (DMRgf) flour were significantly lower than the same formulations obtained using the crepe maker (DMMcm, DMRcm). The highest fat contents for the DMRgf and DMMgf doughnuts were 25.34 and 29.78%, respectively. The beta-carotene contents of the doughnuts fried with the crepe maker (110.32 and 107.92 µg/100 g) were significantly higher than those doughnut fried with the gas fryer (90.91 and 85.49 µg/100 g). The yellow color of the DMRcm formulation was found to be very attractive by 70% of the tasters. In contrast, the DMMcm sample was found to be fairly attractive by 56.70% of the tasters. This method of processing mangos into doughnuts is convenient, requiring only common household equipment. The product is an innovative way of utilizing and adding value to over-ripe mango fruit, to reduce post-harvest loss and increase food and nutrition security.
Key words: Mangifera indica, mango doughnuts, sensory analysis, nutritional characteristics, Burkina Faso.
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The fat contents of the dough made with maize flour (DMM) or rice flour (DMR) were 12 and 13%, respectively. After frying, the fat contents in the doughnuts rose to 29.78 and 25.34% for the gas-fried (DMMgf) and crepe maker (DMRgf), respectively. Moreira et al. (1999) also found that the fat content of doughnuts was in the order of 20 - 25%. On the other hand, fat content of the mango doughnuts fried with the gas fryer (DMMgf, DMRgf) were slightly higher than these values. Other findings show that the oil absorbed in fried products increases with the quantity of water lost during frying (Rossell, 2001; Bouchon, 2009; Thanatuksorn et al., 2010; Galoburda et al., 2013). The endosmosis of oil is due to filling the spaces left by the evaporated water. This observation is confirmed in the present study because the samples having the highest fat content (29.78 and 25.34%) had the lowest moisture content (44.06 and 49.90%). However, the samples fried with crepe maker (DMMcm and DMRcm) had slightly elevated levels of fat (13.09 and 15.87%), respectively. It can be seen that the level of fat is higher in mango doughnuts obtained with the gas fryer than those obtained with the crepe maker, where the endosmosis of oil is limited. Thefat contents of the mango doughnuts fried with the crepe maker were relatively low. Total sugar content of the dough samples (DMM, DMR) were 59.63 and 62% respectively. After processing of dough into doughnuts (DMMcm, DMRcm, DMMgf, DMRgf), total sugars ranged from 40.37 to 58.85%. Sugar levels obtained were all significantly different (Table 2). The decrease in total sugar contents in the doughnut samples could be explained by caramelization of sugar and Maillard reactions which reduce sugars and amino acids during frying (Moyano et al., 2002). These reactions, which are responsible for the color, flavor and texture characteristics of the fried products, also produce compounds such as heterocyclic amines and acrylamides (Biego et al., 2009).
Heterocyclic amines and acrylamides developed at temperatures between 100 and 200°C are suspected to be carcinogenic compounds (Friedman, 2003; Berlitz et al., 2004; Taubert et al., 2004; Pedreschi et al., 2004; Biego et al., 2009). However, deep frying at temperatures below 200°C may considerably limit their formation (Saguy and Dana, 2003). Since our doughnuts were fried at 155 and 135°C with a maximum time of 10 min, it could be assessed that the formation of these products would be limited. The protein content of the dough samples ranged from 5.86 to 6.09% whereas that of the mango doughnuts ranged from 5.53 to 6.04%. A slight decrease in protein contents was observed in the doughnuts (DMMcm, DMMgf, DMRcm and DMRgf). Since the decrease in protein levels is not very significant, we could say that the frying temperature of the mango doughnut did not have a destructive effect on proteins or at least on total nitrogen. Nevertheless, protein digestibility may be affected by the process. Gonzalez (2007) reported that proteins are denatured into carboxylic groups under the effect of heat. It enters also in Maillard reactions with sugar to give new products such as acrylamide. The average β carotene contents of the dough (DMM, DMR) ranged from 172.46 to 195.85 µg.100 g-1 DM, respectively (Table 3). Results show that β-carotene contents in the dough made from maize flour (DMM) was higher than those made from rice flour (DMR). β-carotene content in the mango doughnuts ranged from 85.49 to 110.32 μg.100 g-1 DM. The decrease in β-carotene content was observed after frying, and the mango doughnuts produced with the gas fryer had the lowest beta carotene level (85.49 and 90.91 µg.100 g-1). Higher losses were recorded in mango doughnuts produced with the gas fryer (50.44 and 50.68%) compared with those produced with the crepe maker (37.43 and 43.68%). The decrease in the β carotene content observed in the mango doughnuts obtained with crepe maker and gas fryer was likely due to the isomerization reactions exposed by carotenoids during frying. These isomers then entered into complex reactions to form new products such as flavors (Villota and Hawkes, 1992; Belitz et al., 2004).
CONCLUSION
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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