Plants used in material culture in Oromo community , Jimma , Southwest Oromia , Ethiopia

Since antiquity, plants have been used as a source of material culture by the human societies. The purpose of this study was to assess the plant species and associated traditional knowledge used in making material cultures. A quantitative method (structured interviews and questionnaire) was used to collect data. A total of 75 key informants above 45 age groups were questioned and data on the plant species, handcrafts, traditional arts, cultural uses were recorded and analyzed in percentages, preference ranking, direct matrix and paired comparison. In addition, a total of 225 community members of several age groups and educational levels responded to determine the status of traditional knowledge transfer and its current application. A total of 46 plant species used in material culture were identified from the study area. About 54% of the material objects identified are made from trees and the rest 46% are obtained from shrub and herb. The most multipurpose and preferred plant species reported by informants were Arundinaria alpine, Eucalyptus spp., Cordia africana, Baphia abyssinica, Galiniera saxifrage and others. The traditional knowledge is widely held by male (53%) as compared to both male and female (27%) and female (20%). Finally, this study reveals the decline of the transfer of traditional botanical knowledge (TBK) through generation but a wide use of plant-based material culture by the rural communities.


INTRODUCTION
For a long time, the science of material culture has been focused on objects recovered from archaeological explorations (Cotton, 1996).However, since two decades, this interest has been shifted to plant based material culture used by different societies (Hoang et al., 2008).According to Cotton (1996), material culture refers to the cultural objects made with the knowledge of particular ethnic groups for specific and multipurpose uses from whole plant and plant part(s).
The major use categories of material cultures obtained from plants include agricultural implements, household furniture and/or utensils, construction, musical instruments and others (Singh and Pandey, 1982;Prance et al., 1987;Berlin, 1992;Hoang et al., 2008).For instance, certain Mestizo populations of Amazonian Peru recognize 19 separates use categories for timber, ranging from round-wood to sawn-wood used for purposes such as canoe construction, complex material structures including permanent housing and large vessels (Balee, 1994).A range of different species may be required, each fulfilling specific functions within the total structure (Christensen, 2002).However, the characteristics (size and shape) of plant material cultures made by different societies vary enormously in their design and construction based on their specific traditional knowledge, the availability of plants around and the prevailing environmental conditions (Katewa and Guria, 1997;Berkes, 1998).In different societies, many cultural plant products have been replaced by industrial synthetic alternatives (Cotton, 1996;Burkill, 1997), and these were extended to urban and rural peoples in developing countries (Anonymous 2005).For example, the introduction of metal and plastic containers has led to a decrease in the production of domestic baskets while the use of aluminum canoes has resulted in the loss of many skills required for traditional canoe construction (Alexiades and Sheldon, 1996).Nevertheless, recent report on existing material culture of traditional societies suggest that plants remain vital to many aspects of traditional life, due to their easy accessible and less costs as compared to the synthetic industrial products (Cotton, 1996;Zargwer, 2002).
In developing countries, much traditional equipment of plant derived materials is used for different purposes.The plough, yoke, harrow, cutter, seed drills are chief agricultural implements (Joshi, 1995).Plant fibres are also vital to traditional material culture in Africa, providing lashing materials for both the construction of buildings and the manufacture of wooden tools, for additional objects such as mats, baskets, brushes, hats and paper, while softer fibres are used for weaving textiles.Fibres from most types of plant organ have found some use in traditional material culture.For example, the flexible roots of tamarack (Larix laricina) have been used by the Chippewa community that reside on the Mole Lake Indian Reservation, for weaving bags and sewing birch bark canoes; fibres from the leaves of the palm Phoenix reclinata have been used for making brooms among the Pokomo in Kenya; wood fibres from the yellow cedar (Chamacecyparis hootkatensis) have been woven into soft textiles of high quality by the aboriginal peoples of British Columbia (Mitsuo et al., 2001).Although, there are studies on medicinal plants in reference to many ethnic groups and diverse topographies that have been reported from different regions in Ethiopia (Abebe and Ayehu, 1993;Abebe, 2003;Abera, 2003;Giday et al., 2003;Leulkal, 2005), there are only a few studies on plantbased material culture limited to certain areas and ethnic groups (Adal, 2004;Gemedo-Dalle, 2005;Bahru et al., 2012;Hussen, 2012).The purpose of this study was therefore to assess those plant species and associated traditional knowledge used in making material culture by Jimma Oromo community in Southwest Ethiopia.The four specific objectives were as follows: 1) to identify those plant species, their origin and growth habit and handcraft products used as material culture; 2) to document a traditional knowledge of the community applied to make hand crafts and traditional arts; 3) to identify the most multipurpose and more preferred plant species through preference ranking, direct matrix and paired comparison; and 4) to investigate the status of material culture and its current application.

Study site and population
This study was conducted in Kersa (Figure 1); one of the 17 districts found in Jimma Zone, Oromia region, southwest Ethiopia.Kersa is situated 18 km away to the north east of Jimma town and 345 km southwest of Addis Ababa.The district has a total population of 176,667 and 978 km 2 and bounded by Limmu Kossa, Tiro Afttata, Ommo Nadda and Manna, Dedo to the north, east, west and south, respectively.The district has 31 Kebles and Serbo is the main town situated 25 km from the center of Jimma.It is found on 1600 to 2400 m above sea level.About 85% of the population economically depends on the agriculture in general and 65% on coffee production in particular.The total area of Jimma zone is 18,415 km 2 , where four distinct seasons are considered throughout the year based on the kop pen's system of classification (Kifle, 1994).These include tropical high land with a short dry, tropical climate, tropical high land with winter dry and arid climatic steppe.Specifically, the study was conducted where the seasonal climate is tropical high land with winter dry season, and the mean temperature during the coldest season ranges from 3 to 18°C.This area is covered by forest, and the soil is very fertile, black in colour, and has a good retention capacity (Kifle, 1994).

Reconnaissance survey
Prior to data collection, a reconnaissance survey was carried out in households and in the field throughout Kebeles (Kebele = the least administrative hierarchy in Ethiopia) from 1 to 30 September, 2011: 1) to establish a rapport with community leaders, 2) to identify households where material cultures are used and areas where canopies of forest still exist, 3) to identify key knowledgeable elders of 45 and above age groups, and 4) to identify study sample sites.Accordingly, 5 kebeles were selected; one from the centre (Busa Bechane), and the others each from north (Mera Kebericho), south (kelecha), east (Degeso), West, (Bewatotabi) and these were considered as data collection sites (Figure 1).

Informant selection and data collection
Ethnobotanical data were collected between October and February, 2011 following the methods developed by Martin (1995), Cotton (1996) and Canningham (2001).Ethical clearance was obtained from Jimma University Ethics and Review Committee and dispatched to community leaders.Three field trips were conducted in 5 Kebeles totalling 15.Several methods including interviews, group discussion, participants' observation and questions were used based on the checklist of questions translated into Afan Oromo language to obtain IBK of the local people on plant species used in material culture.
A total of 75 key informants above 45 age groups, 15 each kebele were selected and responded, and data on the plant species, processing, plant products, cultural uses were recorded.In addition, a total of 225 community members of several age groups and educational levels responded and the status of traditional knowledge transfer and its current application were determined.The herbarium of the voucher specimens was prepared and identified using local floras or manuals and the entire herbarium sheet were deposited in herbarium of Jimma University.Finally, standard herbarium method was followed for preparations of herbarium (Bridney and Forman, 1989).

Data quantification, verification and interpretation
The number of medicinal plants named by individual respondent was summed, averaged and converted into percent using MS Excel data entry spreadsheet.This was used to determine the status of knowledge transfer in reference to age groups and educational levels.The remaining data were quantified and verified as per the methodologies of Alexiades and Sheldon (1996) and Trotter and Longman (1986), respectively through preference ranking, double matrix and paired comparison.Finally, obtained results were interpreted and illustrated in tables and figures.

Plant identification
A total of 46 plant species belongs to 44 families and 55 genera used in material culture were identified in the study area.Of these, 6 species belong to Poaceae followed by 5 species of Fabaceae, 4 species of Euphobiaceae and Myrtaceae each, and 2 species of four families each (Asteraceae, Oleaceae, Sapotaceae and Verbenaceae), while the rest 38 families are represented by one species (Appendix 1).The highest numbers of species belonging to Poaceae followed by Fabaceae in this study is probably due to their growth habit (tree and shrub) and suitability for the makings of many and simple furniture used by the local community.
Many studies also reported that the highest number of plant species belong the Fabaceae used in material culture (Gemedo-Dalle et al., 2005).

Growth habit
Of the 3 growth habits recorded, 25 (54%) trees, 10 (22%) shrubs and 11 (24%) herbs were identified as sources of material culture used by the community of the study area.Tree held the highest number due to its woody growth form, and high utilization by the community of the study area ranging from simple furniture making to house construction and agricultural implements.Bahru et al. (2012) reported that the highest proportion growth form contributing to making of material culture in eastern Ethiopia was contributed by shrubs followed by trees.This may be due to the availability of more tree population in the forest of southwest as compared to other regions of the country.

Plant part(s) used
Of the plant parts used for the production of material culture in the study area, woody-stem held the highest percentage (49%) followed by leafy-stem and leaf (13% each), and hollow stem, while the rest except leafypetiole holds the same percentage in use (Figure 2).This result is in agreement with the report made by Bahru et al. (2012) recorded from the Indigenous Knowledge (IK) of Oromo and Afar nations, east Ethiopia.

Major use categories of plant material culture in the study area
The local community of the study area still today relies on traditionally made agricultural tools, household furniture, utensils, house and other traditional arts obtained from a diversity of plant species.

Agricultural implements
The agricultural implements identified in this study include plough, yoke, axe and digger made from several plant parts (Appendix 1) supplemented with locally made metal instruments.Honey production is one of the most commercial produce of agricultural sectors produced by the community of the study area using a diversity of plant species distributed in the forest for hanging beehives.Of the flowering plants, the most selected plant species that highly attract bees for honey production are Erythrina brucei, Euphorbia ampliphylla, Juniperus procera, C. macrostachys, Vernonia auriculifera while Vernonia leopoldii makes beehive (Appendix 1).

House construction
The majority of the household of the study area live in the house constructed with the diversity of plant species including trees, shrubs and herbs (Appendix 1).The Construction of the house is always carried out by Daboo (a group of neighbouring male) without special or private skill requirement of the members of the community.The type and construction of the house depends on the interest of the household (size and shape), the availability of appropriate plant species in the area and climatic conditions.The stand house consists of two major parts.The circled and/or squared house wall and the above coverage, roof.The wall is constructed by planting woody stems of Adansonia gregori, C. africana, Eleutine jaegeri, Juniperus procera, Olea welwitschii, Podocarpus falcatus (for window frames), Setaria megaphylla and Hyparrhenia hirta, similar in height but differ in thickness.The stand sticks are longitudinally tied by rope (hiddaa) obtained from Acalypha fruticosa, and Ensete venticosum plant species.The roof consists of two layers; the inner layer is thatched from vertically laid woody stems of Eucalyptus globulus C. Africana and the outer is covered by a bunch of grass species such as E. jaegeri.The majority of rural houses have single door made from the timber of C. africana.Similarly, the study conducted in east shoa Zone, Ethiopia by Adal (2004) reported similarity of the majority of the plant species but frequent use of Acacia species due to the scarcity of other indigenous species as a result of agricultural expansion.

Home furniture and other traditional arts
Out of 46 plant species about 35% are used as source of household furniture including beds, seats, baskets, plate and grinders while the rest species serve for firewood, ritual values, toothbrush, hunting and musical instruments.The most preferred plant species for bed, seat and grinder makings are A. schemperiana, C. africana, P. africana, Olea welwitschii.Different types of baskets differ in size and shape and serve as a container for grain storage, market and placing of clothes by the local community both for self-service and commercialization, and the most suitable plant species used for making such material cultures are Arundinaria alpine (bamboo) and Phoenix reclinata (Meexxii).Curcubita pepo is widely used for making containers for drinking water, local beverages (tella and Taji) and feeding (Appendix 1).This report is similar to that of Adal (2004) Ethiopia and Tanzania (Munishi et al., 2006;Bahru et al., 2012).Ficus vasta (Odaa) is the most respected, vigorous and ritual plant species providing a multiservice in Oromo culture, religion and administration, where thanks to the God, holydays and meetings are held under the shade; the same goes for other Oromo community in Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia (Gemedo-Dalle et al., 2005;Bahru et al., 2012).

Traditional botanical knowledge (TBK) versus age group of Gada system
The TBK is largely held by elder age groups.The knowledge of naming of the local names of individual plant species, choice of preference of plant species, processing and application for specific cultural value declines with age groups and life styles.The new generations and the urban community (less than 30 years old age groups) of the study area showed a decline in traditional botanical knowledge; in naming and identification of the plant species around them (Table 1).The highest average percentage (76%) of plant species were recorded by Yuba II and I (49 and above age groups) as compared to others, which showed a decrease to Dabballee (1 to 8 age groups).Similarly, the average percentage of plant species named by rural students was greater than those of urban students with increasing educational levels of all variables (Table 2).The decline of the TBK in generation is due to the interference of and shifts to the use of more synthetic industrial products not only in the urban but also extending to the rural areas.Various reported studies indicate that the traditional knowledge of the majority of the developing nations has been transmitted from mouth to mouth (orally) through generations, and consequently express their strong feeling that even the same is rapidly declining due to the dominance and extensive growth and development of scientific knowledge and technology (Gemedo-Dalle et al., 2005).

Gender versus TBK
This study revealed that the TBK and the skill of making are widely held by male (53%) as compared to both male and female (27%) and female (20%) (Figure 3).However, there are labour divisions between male and female of the study area for instance while house construction is carried out by male, weaving is always done by the females.This difference is probably due to the exposure of males more to the field works and in contrast the engagement of females to the household activities in developing countries.
Similarly, various studies reported the existence of more cultural botanical knowledge by males in traditional medicine as compared to the females (Assefa et al., 2010).

Multipurpose plant species
According to Table 3, the highest value, 51 (1 st rank) was assigned to Arundinaria alpine followed The least ranked species in multipurpose aspect from the chosen species were Hippocratea africana and Malotus oppositifolius but this does not mean that the least ranked species are the less threatened and the dominantly distributed species in the area.This is because they are highly used for construction and house hold equipment as observed in the area.Thus, the survival of the species according to their rank is under question, because of the daily demand of the Oromo community, which is not supplemented by planting these plants.

Use status of material culture
The highest percentage of respondents (90%) reported that they still use handcrafts (traditionally made from plants) for storage purposes followed by, for seat, feed and sleeping services (75, 70,

Factors influencing the use of material culture
Currently, interest towards utilizing material culture is diminishing among the younger generation.According to this study (Table 4), the major factors include the wide distribution of synthetic and sophisticated industrial products; a lack of formal indigenous knowledge education and ignorance of own cultural identity.For instance, the introduction of metal and plastic containers has led to a decrease in the production of domestic baskets while the use of aluminum canoes has resulted in the loss of many skills required for traditional canoe construction (Alexiades and Sheldon, 1996).Oral based transmission of indigenous knowledge in developing nations has played a pivotal role for the deterioration of the exploitation of cheap and access material culture (Gemedo-Dalle et al., 2005).Asefa et al. ( 2010) similarly indicated that the tendency for modern education, the migration to cities for profitable jobs and education, the decline of the plant population due to deforestation are some of the reasons for the decline of the use of traditional plant based material culture.In addition, some elderly people were becoming reluctant to share their knowledge and use material culture when they have already experienced more suitable equipment.Due to these factors, the practice is now becoming more and more outdated.In the present study, more information was obtained from elderly informants than the young ones.This could indicate a lack of interest which ultimately results in loss of knowledge.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Map of the study area.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Plant part (s) used in the production of different material cultures.
For instance, plough is made from cut and curved woody-stem of Albizia schemperiana, Cordia africana, Prunus africana and Podocarpus falcutus estimated to be 2½ m in length.The second part connected to a plough is a yoke (QANBARRII) made from stem cuttings of A. schemperiana, Croton macrostachys, and Syzygium guineense.The two implements are connected by forming a hole at the tip of a plough and at the mid of yoke, and tied to the neck of the oxen.A digger (GASOO) or plank-a long, thin flat piece of timber made from buttress roots of P. africana, Allophylus abyssinicus, C. macrostachyus and Olea welwischii used for the fractionation of soil and removal of weeds during ploughing was mainly carried out by household or young family members (Dargaggoo or shamaran).Axe is widely used for cutting trees in order to prepare farm land, and the axe handle is made from stem cuttings and curving of Accacia abyssinica, Coffee arabica, Mimusops kummel, Psidum gusigava.Similarly, Adal (2004) (North Shoa, Ethiopia), Chaudhary et al. (2008) (India) and Bahru et al. (2012) (East Ethiopia) have reported the making and application of the same farm implements but differ in plant species.For instance, Adel et al. (2004) reported the use of Ehertia cymosa and Terminalia brownii for farm tools.
by C. africana, F. ovata and Pouteria adolfifriederici with the value of 49 and 40 in the 2nd and 3rd places, respectively.Ficus sur, Hallea rubrostipulosa and Hippocratea africana are the other multipurpose species ranking 4 th , 5 th and 6 th , respectively.Diospyros abyssinica, Baphia abyssinica and Manilkara butuji are the other multipurpose

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Use status of handcrafts and traditional arts in the household of the local community for different services.
report from North Shoa, Ethiopia, Chaudhary et al.Clausena anisata (stem) different from species reported by Bahru et al. (2012) and Gemdeo-Dalle et al. (2005) both from Ethiopia and Munishi et al. (2006) from Tanzania.The bark of S. kunthianum is the best toothbrush sold in local towns and markets by mobile children the same for Salvadora persica in other regions of

Table 1 .
Traditional botanical knowledge versus age groups of the rural and urban community with reference to the naming of the local names and use of plant species in material culture.

Table 2 .
Traditional botanical knowledge versus educational levels with reference to local names of plant species used in material culture.

Table 3 .
Direct matrix ranking for most multipurpose plant species.

Table 4 .
Factors influencing the use of material culture as ranked by 15 respondents.
th 1996) although, the application in traditional arts is disappearing.
List of plant species used in material culture with reference to Oromo community, Kersa District, Jimma, southwest Ethiopia.