Evaluation of fourth-grade primary school students ’ attitudes and self-efficacy towards physical education course using socio-cultural approach

Changes in the national education system in Turkey have negative effects on the development of sports. Because, as classroom teachers teach Physical Education courses themselves, instead Physical Education teachers teach the course. This was because of a recent legislation released by the Ministry of National Education related to 4+4+4 compulsory schooling and the last resort for compulsory schooling model was made as 4+4+4 on 2012 to 2013 education season. In this context, the purpose of this research is to evaluate fourth-grade primary school students’ attitudes and self-efficacy towards physical education course based on socio-cultural approach. Physical Education Predisposition Scale (BEYÖ in Turkish) was used as the data collection tool and “Explanatory Factor Analysis (EFA)”, “Cronbach Alpha Coefficient” and “Item-Total Correlation Analysis” were conducted on fourth-grade students in order to maintain validity and reliability of the data collected. In the normality hypothesis analysis of the collected data, it is thought that “Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test” along with skewness and kurtosis coefficients will contribute to existing literature.


INTRODUCTION
defines the concept of attitude as "an individual"s positive or negative evaluation of an object".When attitudes are categorized as positive or negative; having negative beliefs about ideas or objects, rejecting or disliking them, taking negative actions towards these might be considered as negative attitudes and having positive beliefs about ideas or objects, accepting and liking them might be considered as positive attitudes (Demirhan and Altay, 2001).People have their attitudes as a result of their previous experiences, thus, attitudes are not innate behaviors (Kağıtçıbaşı, 2005).According to Sakallı (2006), there are various factors that affect our attitudes.Family, environment and direct personal experiences are major factors among these.Kağıtçıbaşı (2005) indicated that the age of a person is also an important factor in terms of attitudes.Many attitudes are formed especially during childhood (between 6 to 12 ages) by imitating parents" behaviors.In the first stage of adulthood (between 21 to 30 ages), these attitudes are reinforced.If an individual forms a positive attitude towards an object or an idea, he approaches to it and supports it; however if an individual forms a negative attitude towards an object or an idea, he drifts away from it and even takes negative actions towards it.However, attitudes might change and new attitudes might be formed over time.For that reason, researches related to attitudes might provide useful findings for physical education and sports instructors (Şişko and Demirhan, 2002).
Another important factor which affects attitudes is selfefficacy."Self-efficacy" is one of the major concepts in Bandura"s social learning theory and Bandura (1997) defines self-efficacy as people's beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives.Self-efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave.Such beliefs produce these diverse effects through four major processes.They include cognitive, motivational, affective and selection processes.A strong sense of efficacy enhances human accomplishment and personal well-being in many ways.People with high assurance in their capabilities approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered rather than as threats to be avoided.Such an efficacious outlook fosters intrinsic interest and deep engrossment in activities.They set themselves challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them.They heighten and sustain their efforts in the face of failure.They quickly recover their sense of efficacy after failures or setbacks.They attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge and skills which are acquirable.They approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise control over them.Such an efficacious outlook produces personal accomplishments, reduces stress and lowers vulnerability to depression (Bandura, 1994).
According to Seçkin and Başbay (2013), self-efficacy is an individual"s self-evaluation of his random behaviors.Self-efficacy also affects emotional reactions and ways of thinking of individuals.People who have a high level of self-efficacy might be relatively comfortable and productive in difficult activities and tasks.Physical education is the whole of theoretical and consistent studies conducted in order to contribute to physical and body development of individuals, to prepare them for the conditions of daily life and work life and to enhance their national awareness and citizenship feelings (Yamaner, 2001).Physical education not only develops physical features, but also promotes a sense of self-respect, mutual respect, cooperation and teamwork and supports and enhances leadership abilities (Buck et al., 2004).Young children are leading increasingly sedentary lives, with physical activity frequently displaced by television viewing, Internet surfing, and video gaming (Myers et al., 1996).Much concern has surfaced for this lifestyle change as childhood obesity has risen greatly in the last 10 years (World Health Organization, 2000).Within the school context, incorporating physical activity or fitness training is a likely means to improve the physical health Aydoğan 2035 status of children (Haskell, 1994) as well as cognitive performance (Sibley and Etnier, 2003) and attention and concentration (Hillman et al., 2005;Shephard, 1996;Taras, 2005).Students feel satisfaction when they participate in physical education activities during school.These physical education activities can greatly enhance students" learning experience and positively influence their physical, mental, social and interpersonal wellbeing (Huang, 2007).Physical education course aims to improve individuals" social competence and positive sense of self as well as basic motor skills (Göktaş and Arıkıran, 2007).In this way self-efficacy that students develop might be by means of their participation in physical education courses.
The basic resource which helps countries to develop socially, culturally and artistically is healthy manpower.In order for a country to raise a healthy generation, a modern education approach should be implemented and physical education classes should be integrated to the curriculums, which affect millions of primary and junior high school students are affected.It is of great importance to help contribute to personal development of millions of students through activities in physical education classes.Intra-curriculum and extra-curriculum physical education activities are among the most important activities that help primary and junior high school students, who have a high level of activity to use their energy in a positive way, to be stress free and socialize, adapt to rules, keep away from harmful habits, enhance their knowledge, skills and abilities (Akgün and İnan, 2010).Students generally have a receptive approach towards physical education classes.The findings of this study support this hypothesis.Taşmektepli et al (2006) also had similar findings.Their interpretation of those findings was that students generally show a higher level of interest in physical education classes and they have a receptive attitude.

METHOD Population and sample
The population of this study includes fourth-grade primary school students.The sample of the study consists of 424 fourth-grade students from the following 12 primary schools: Kurtuluş Primary School located in Rize City Center; Karasu, Ambarlık, Şehit Nedim Çalık, and Dörtyol primary schools located in the Central District; Kıbledağı Şehit Metin Çetin, Başköy, Ulucami, and Adacami primary schools from villages of Güneysu District; İMKB Primary School located in Güneysu District Center; 28 Şubat primary schools located in Off District in Trabzon Province; Zeki Bilge Primary School and Uzungöl primary schools located in Çaykara District in Trabzon.

Data collection tools
"Personal Information Form" (Annex -2) and "Physical Education

Physical education predisposition scale (PEPS)
Physical Education Predisposition Scale (PEPS), which was developed by Hilland et al. (2009) and adapted to Turkish language by Öncü, Gürbüz, Küçükkılıç and Keskin (2015), was used to measure students" self-efficacy and attitudes towards physical education.The scale, which consists of 11 items, includes 2 factors.Factors of the scale are "Attitude" (6 items) and "Self-efficacy" (5 items).Negative items included in the scale are scored reversely.The scale is a 5-point Likert-type scale with the following scoring system: "I strongly disagree (1)", "I disagree (2)", "I neither agree nor disagree (3)", "I agree (4)" and "I strongly agree (5)" The lowest score that can be achieved in the scale is 11 and the highest one is 55.The lowest and the highest scores of "Attitude" sub-dimension of the scale are 6 and 30, whereas the lowest and the highest scores of "Self-efficacy" sub-dimension of the scale are 5 and 25, respectively.

Statistical methods
Explanatory Factor Analysis (EFA), "Cronbach Alpha Coefficient", and "Item-Total Correlation Analysis" were conducted in order to confirm the validity and reliability of " PEPS" (or BEYÖ in Turkish), which was used on fourth grade students as a data collection tool in this research.Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and coefficient of skewness and kurtosis were used in normality analysis of the collected data.Number of groups was taken into consideration for comparison of attitude and self-efficacy scores of different groups.In accordance with this, "t test for independent groups", which is a parametric statistical method, was used for comparison of the average scores of two independent groups and "one way analysis of variance test (ANOVA)", which is another parametric statistical method, was used for comparison of the average scores of three or more groups.If ANOVA tests proved differences, Tukey multiple comparison test (Post Hoc) was used in order to determine which group is the source of these differences.IBM SPSS package program was used for application of aforementioned statistical methods within the scope of this research.

Factor analysis
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin coefficient and Bartlett Test of Sphericity were used in order to determine whether conducting an explanatory factor analysis is compatible with and sufficient for the data collected from the scale which consists of 11 items and is designated for fourthgrade students.The obtained results are given in Table 1.According to the findings listed in the Table 1, the obtained results are perfect since KMO coefficient is 0.868.For that reason, the sample size of the research is sufficient.Another test which determines whether explanatory factor analysis is compatible with a set of data is the sphericity test developed by Bartlett to determine the homoscedasticity of the sample.Factor analysis is conducted to detect high level of correlation between reverse floating variables of regression analysis.In this context, Bartlett test helps us to determine whether there is a significant correlation between variables in the main sample (Nakip, 2006).According to the results listed in the table, it is determined that the data collected are compatible with factor analysis (B=1413.97; p = 0.000 < 0.05).

Results of factor analysis
After determining that the data collected are compatible with factor analysis, explanatory factor analysis was conducted using Principal Components Analysis and Varimax Rotation methods to determine the factor structure of the scale.Factors collected as a result of conducted explanatory factor analysis and factor weight values of items listed under these factors are listed in Table 2.It is understood that latent values of 2 factors listed in Table 2 are greater than 1.The most significant and prominent method for determining whether a factor should be included in the scale is based on the latent value of the factor (those greater than 1 are included as a factor).(Büyüköztürk, 2002).Variances of these two factors are 37.75 and 14.72% and total variance listed is 52.47%.According to these findings, it is understood that these two factors reflect 0.52% of total variance of the main structure.This value should be deemed acceptable according to Kline since it is over 40% (Ceyhan and Namlu, 2000).According to these results, it might be concluded that the scale proved valid results on fourth grade students and it has a solid factor structure.

Reliability analysis
If internal consistency determinant Cronbach α coefficient is lower than 0.40, the scale is "unreliable"; if it is between 0.40 to 0.59, the scale has a "low level of reliability" and if it is between 0.60 to 0.79, the scale has a "high level of reliability" (Tavşancıl, 2002).In this study, internal consistency of the PEPS (BEYÖ in Turkish) scale was analyzed measuring Cronbach Alpha coefficients of the whole scale and its sub-dimensions separately.Cronbach Alpha coefficients of each factor and the whole

Item-total score correlation analysis
Item-total score correlation analysis is an objective control mechanism which explains the relation between scores obtained from items and total scores obtained from the test (Tezbaşaran, 1996).In other words, it displays whether each item of a scale samples similar behaviors or not.In this context, item-total score correlation is expected to be greater than 0.25.Significant correlation coefficients between scale item or sub-dimension scores and total scale scores are deemed as a sign of internal consistency.High correlation coefficients show the high compatibility of the respective item with measured theoretical structure.In case correlation coefficient is lesser than 0.25, it is suggested to remove these items from the scale (Karataş, 2014).
According to the findings listed in Table 4, item-total correlation coefficients of all 11 items are greater than 0.25.Based on this, it might be suggested that all items have a high correlation with the whole of the scale and they move in the same direction with the fundamental structure measured by the scale.In this case, there is no need to remove any items from the scale and it might be suggested that PEPS (BEYÖ in Turkish) maintains the number of items on fourth grade student population Table 5.

Comparison of fourth grade student behaviors based on demographic variables
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to determine whether total attitude score variable obtained from the attitude sub-dimension of the scale has a normal distribution Table 6.According to Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test, total attitude scores of fourth-grades are not distributed evenly (p<0.05).In this case, normality of the data collected using the Likert scale is tested using another criterion commonly accepted in literature whose skewness and kurtosis coefficients are between -1.5 and +1.5 (Fidell et al., 2013).Based on this and taking into account skewness and kurtosis coefficients of attitude variable, it might be considered to be distributed evenly (normal).In this case, parametric methods are used to determine whether attitude scores have any significant differences based on certain demographic variables.

Comparison of attitude scores based on gender
T test was used in independent groups to determine whether attitude sub-dimension scores of fourth grade students have a significant difference based on gender.
The results are presented in Table 7.
Based on the results listed in the Table 7 and Figure 1, fourth-grade students" attitudes towards physical education have a significant statistical difference (t=2.875;p<0.05).Analyzing the average scores of genders, it is understood that female students have a more positive attitude towards physical education compared to males.

Comparison of attitude scores based on past injuries in PE classes
T test was used in independent groups to determine Aydoğan 2038    whether fourth grade students" past injuries in physical education classes cause a significant difference in their attitudes towards physical education.The results are given in Table 8 and Figure 2. According to t test results on this chart, fourth grade students" attitudes towards physical education classes do not differ significantly based on whether they have past injuries in PE classes (t=-1.365;p>0.05).In this case, fourth grade students" negative past experiences in PE classes do not affect their attitudes towards this class.

Comparison of attitude scores based on education level of mother
One way variance analysis (ANOVA) was used to determine whether education level of mothers of fourth grade students significantly affects their attitude scores towards physical education classes.The test results are as given in Table 9 and Figure 3.According to ANOVA test results on this chart, fourth grade students" attitudes towards physical education classes do not differ significantly based on education level of their mothers (F=2.105;p>0.05).

Comparison of attitude scores based on education level of father
One way variance analysis (ANOVA) was used to determine whether education level of fathers of fourth grade students significantly affects their attitude scores     towards physical education classes.The test results are seen in Table 10 and Figure 4.According to ANOVA test results on this chart, fourth grade students" attitudes towards physical education classes differ significantly based on education level of their fathers (F=6.603;p<0.05).Tukey multiple comparison test (Post Hoc) was used in order to determine which group is the source of difference and the following results were obtained Table 11.According to the findings in this table, there are significant differences between primary-undergraduate,  primary-postgraduate, junior high school-high school, junior high school-postgraduate groups based on education level of their fathers.In addition, when analyzing the average scores of the groups, students" attitude scores increase as their fathers" education level changes from primary to post-graduate.Therefore, it might be concluded that students" attitudes towards physical education classes increase positively in parallel with education level of their fathers.

Comparison of attitude scores based on locations of schools
One way variance analysis (ANOVA) was used to determine whether school locations of fourth grade students significantly affect attitude scores towards physical education classes.Test results are given in Table 12 and Figure 5.According to ANOVA test results on this chart, fourth grade students" attitudes towards physical education classes differ significantly based on locations of their schools (F=5.669;p<0.05).Tukey multiple comparison tests were used to determine which group is the source of difference and following results were obtained Table 13.According to the findings in Table 14, there are significant differences between city center village-district center and district village-district center location groups.In addition, average scores of groups indicate that the attitudes of fourth grade students attending schools in district centers are more positive towards physical education classes.

Comparison of self-efficacy levels of fourth grade students based on demographic variables
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to determine whether total self-efficacy score variable obtained from the self-   15.According to Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test, total self-efficacy scores of fourth grades are not distributed evenly (p<0.05).In this case, normality of the data collected using the Likert scale is tested using another criterion commonly accepted in literature whose skewness and kurtosis coefficients are between -1.5 and +1.5 (Fidell et al., 2013).Based on this and taking into account skewness and kurtosis coefficients of attitude variable, it might be considered to be distributed evenly (normal).In this case, just as in attitude sub-dimension, parametric methods are used to determine whether self-Aydoğan 2043    efficacy scores have any significant differences based on certain demographic variables.

Comparison of self-efficacy scores based on gender
T test was used in independent groups to determine whether self-efficacy sub-dimension scores of fourth grade students have a significant difference based on gender.The results are given in Table 16 and Figure 6.
Based on the results listed on this chart, fourth grade students" self-efficacy perceptions of physical education classes do not have a significant statistical difference (t= -0.708; p>0.05).

Comparison of self-efficacy scores based on past injuries in PE classes
T test was used in independent groups to determine whether fourth grade students" past injuries in physical education classes cause a significant difference in their self-efficacy perceptions of physical education.The results are given in Table 17 and

Comparison of self-efficacy scores based on education level of mother
One way variance analysis (ANOVA) was used to determine whether education level of mothers of fourth grade students significantly affects self-efficacy scores towards physical education classes.Test results are given in Table 18 and Figure 8.
According to ANOVA test results on this chart, fourth grade students" self-efficacy perceptions of physical education classes do not differ significantly based on education level of their mothers (F=0,630; p>0.05).

Comparison of Self-Efficacy Scores Based on Education Level of Fathers
One way variance analysis (ANOVA) was used to determine whether education level of fathers of fourth grade students significantly affects self-efficacy scores towards physical education classes.Test results are given in Table 19 and Figure 9.According to ANOVA test results on this chart, fourth grade students" self-efficacy perceptions of physical education classes differ significantly based on education level of their fathers (F=2.564;p<0.05).In addition, group averages indicate that self-efficacy perceptions of students who have fathers with a highest level of education are the highest.

Comparison of self-efficacy scores based on locations of schools
One way variance analysis (ANOVA) was used to determine whether school locations of fourth grade students significantly affect self-efficacy scores towards physical education classes.Test results are given in Table 20 and Figure    on this chart, fourth grade students" self-efficacy perceptions of physical education classes differ significantly based on locations of their schools (F=3.709;p<0.05).Tukey multiple comparison test was used to determine which group is the source of the difference and the following results were obtained Table 21.Based on the findings listed in the table, locations of schools cause a significant difference only between villages and city centers.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
In this study, statistical calculations related to fourthgrade primary school students" attitudes and self-efficacy towards physical education classes were made and the details were included in charts.Summarized interpretation of the collected data shows that students" attitudes and self-efficacy perceptions do not differ greatly in terms of demographic variables.Analysis of average scores indicate that female students show greater interest in physical education classes when compared to male students.According to the findings of the study, fourth-grade students" attitudes and selfefficacy perceptions do not differ greatly based on their past injuries in PE classes.Hence, it might be concluded that past injuries do not change fourth-grade students" attitudes towards physical education classes.Another finding suggests that students" attitudes do not differ greatly based on education level of their mothers.However, education level of fathers creates a significant difference (F=6.603;p<0.05).According to the findings of  this study, there are significant differences between primary-undergraduate and junior high school -postgraduate education level groups.In addition, when group averages are taken into consideration, as fathers" education level increases from primary school to undergraduate, attitude score averages generally increase.
According to this, it might be suggested that the better fathers" education level is the more positive students" attitudes towards the class are.On the other hand, it might also be suggested that locations of schools create a significant difference in attitudes towards PE classes (F=5.669;p<0.05).According to the results of this research, there are significant differences between villages in city center-district centers and villages in district centers-district centers.In a study conducted by Yıldırım and İlhan (2010), average scores of groups indicated that the attitudes of fourth grade students attending schools in district centers are more positive towards physical education classes and this is also supported by our findings.Moreover, findings of Endler et al. (2001) suggested that gender does not create significant differences in terms of overall self-efficacy.Analyzing the self-efficacy dimension of the study, it is suggested that fourth grade students" self-efficacy perceptions of physical education classes do not have any significant differences.Hence, the results of our study are parallel to the findings of Endler et al. (2001).
In a study of Lorraine B. Robbins et al. (2004), the significant increase for both boys and girls in self-efficacy after completing the exercise task supports the importance of successful performance for enhancing selfefficacy or confidence in a particular behavioral domain.Interventions to increase PA self-efficacy should focus on: (a) providing positive PA experiences that minimize perceptions of discomfort, (b) mobilizing social sources of efficacy enhancement, such as modeling of PA by significant others (Bandura, 1986;e.g., peers, family members, educators, and health professionals), and (c) persuading children and adolescents that regular PA is an important and enjoyable part of everyday life.Research findings of a positive correlation between support for PA from parents and siblings and youth PA involvement (Aarnio et al., 1997;Zakarian et al., 1994) suggest that combining social support, selfefficacy, and positive experiential components in interventions to increase PA may be promising (Robbins et al., 2004).
According to our study, fourth-grade students" past negative experiences do not affect their self-efficacy perceptions of PE classes.It is also understood that selfefficacy perceptions of fourth-grade students do not differ significantly based on education level of their mothers; however, it is based on education level of their fathers.Furthermore, group averages indicate that selfefficacy perceptions of students who have fathers with a highest level of education are the highest.It is understood that self-efficacy perceptions of physical education classes do not differ significantly based on locations of schools (F=3.709;p<0.05).In conclusion, primary school students are accompanied by other branch teachers such as English teachers and religious culture and moral knowledge teachers in addition to guidance counselors after the second grade.Physical Education and Sports classes have a vital importance on children"s personal and moral development as suggested earlier.In this context, if Physical Education specialists instruct children"s PE classes as a requirement of a more professional approach.This will help children have a healthier education life and it will also contribute to the development of sports in the country; also, increased weekly hours of Physical Education and Sports classes will provide students with the opportunity to participate in sports activities more frequently.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Average attitude scores based on gender.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Attitude score averages based on past injuries in PE classes.

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. Average attitude scores based on education level of mothers.

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Average attitude scores based on education level of fathers.

Figure 5 .
Figure 5. Average attitude scores based on locations of schools.

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.Average self-efficacy scores based on gender.

Figure 7 .
Figure 7. Self-efficacy scores based on past injuries.

Figure 7 .
According to t test results on this chart, fourth grade students" selfefficacy perceptions of physical education classes do not differ significantly based on whether they have past injuries in PE classes (t=-1.45;p>0.05).In this case, fourth grade students" negative past experiences in PE classes do not affect their self-efficacy perceptions of

Figure 8 .
Figure 8. Self-efficacy scores based on education level of mothers

Figure 9 .
Figure 9. Self-efficacy scores based on education level of fathers.

Figure 10 .
Figure 10.Average self-efficacy scores based on locations of schools.

Table 1 .
Collected data"s compatibility with factor analysis.

Table 2 .
Factor analysis results.

Table 3 .
Internal consistency coefficients of the whole scale and all sub-dimensions.

Table 5 .
Statistics related to attitude dimension.

Table 6 .
K-S normality test results.

Table 7 .
(t)Test results of attitude score averages based on gender.

Table 8 .
(t) Test results of attitude score averages based on past injuries in PE classes.

Table 9 .
Anova test related to attitude score averages based on education level of mothers.

Table 10 .
Anova test related to attitude score averages based on education level of fathers.

Table 11 .
Tukey multiple comparison test results based on education level of fathers.

Table 12 .
Anova test related to attitude score averages based on locations of schools.

Table 13 .
Tukey multiple comparison test results based on locations of schools.

Table 14 .
Statistics related to self-efficacy dimension.

Table 15 .
K-S normality test results.

Table 16 .
(t) test results of self-efficacy score averages based on

Table 17 .
(t) test results of self-efficacy score averages based on past injuries in PE classes.

Table 18 .
Anova test related to self-efficacy score averages based on education level of mothers.

Table 19 .
Anova test related to self-efficacy score averages based on education level of fathers.

Table 20 .
Anova test related to self-efficacy score averages based on locations of schools.

Table 21 .
Tukey multiple comparison test results based on locations of schools.