The relationship between gender and classroom environment in Turkish science classrooms

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship of gender between actual and preferred classroom environment and use of technology in the science classroom of Turkish students. Employing stratified random sampling procedures, data were collected from 985 students from schools across twelve different districts in Istanbul, Turkey. The Technology-Rich Outcomes-Focused Learning Environment Inventory (TROFLEI), developed by Aldridge and Fraser (2003), was used in this study. The TROFLEI was translated into Turkish using a multistep process. Independent samples t-tests were conducted on each of the scale items to evaluate the relationship between gender and the students’ actual and preferred use of technology in the science classroom. Our findings show that differences clearly exist between genders in their actual and preferred perceptions of classroom environment and their use of technology in the science classroom. This knowledge can serve as valuable information as educational reforms continue to evolve and educators seek to reach all students in their classrooms.


INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship of gender between actual and preferred classroom environment and use of technology in the science classroom of Turkish students.
The creation ofclassroom environments in which students engage in meaningful learning depends on psychologically appropriate and supportive classrooms.Research has identified student cohesiveness, selfesteem and confidence, motivation, and sense of belonging as important psychosocial dimension that impact the learning environment (Goh, 2002).In addition, satisfaction, goal, direction, difficulty, competitiveness, and friction are social-psychological dimensions which have been identified to also influence the learning environment (Heartel et al.,1981).
In efforts to increase the quality of education and reduce societal inequities, Turkey has implemented numerous reforms to its educational system (Aksit, 2007).The reforms have included increasing the length of compulsory education from five to eight years, an integration of contemporary technical and vocational standards into the curriculum, and the integration of information and communication technology and highspeed Internet connections into every school (Ministry of *Corresponding author.E-mail: awelch@ecae.ac.ae.Tel: 701.231.5498.Authors agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License National Education, 2005).Furthermore, the new compulsory education bill increases the compulsory education requirement to twelve years, which are divided into three terms, namely elementary school, middle school and high school (Eurydice, 2013).The new compulsory education changes were put into effect in the 2012-2013 school years.
As educational reforms continue and the integration of technology into the classroom becomes standard practice, the need to study the impact and implications of these efforts become increasingly important, yet there is limited data about the learning environments and the integration of technology in the science classrooms in Turkey.Tingöy and Güllüoğlu (2011) found that most people believed that information technologies are crucial to education and that additional training in the use of technology was necessary.Telli et al. (2006) found that Turkish students' perceptions about learning environments in biology were significantly correlated to their attitudes towards biology.Similarly, Dagdelen (2013) reported statistically significant associations between Turkish high school students' perceptions of learning environment and their attitudes towards and achievement in biology.She found that classroom environment measures accounted for 17% of variance in students' attitudes and 18% of variance in students' academic achievements.
Similar trends are found in the science classrooms.There is ample evidence supporting the theory that boys in general are more interested in science and pursue science related careers than girls (Garner, 1998;Kahle and Lakes, 1983;Kelly, 1978;Miller et al., 2006;Weinburgh, 1995).A longitudinal study of factors related to persistence in a science-related career, men and women who had aspirations toward careers science and technology was surveyed beginning in high school.Ten years later, only 36% of the women and 46% of the men had persisted in a science-related career (Farmer et al., 1995).
Therefore, a closer examination of how gender may be a factor in students' actual and preferred use of technology in the science classroom is important as education reform continues to evolve in Turkey.Gender differences may impact the students' use of technology, and ultimately, success in the classroom.

Classroom environment theory
The conceptual foundation of classroom environment theory can be traced to Moos ' (1979) work in which he categorized learning environments into three categories: relationship, personal growth, and system maintenance and system change.Relationship assesses the nature and intensity of personal relationships developed between the student,their peers, and their teacher.Personal growth and development focuses on opportunities for student's personal growth and self-enhancement through involvement with class activities.System maintenance and system change identify the extent to which the learning environment is orderly and innovative, and that the teacher has set clear expectations and maintains control in the classroom.Moos (1991) found that the promotion of the positive effect of these psychosocial dimensions depends on classrooms where supportive relationships with teachers and classmates are formed and where there is an emphasis on participation.

Gender differences and perceptions of technology for learning
Research on gender differences in perception of classroom environment has not produced unequivocal results as some studies reported no difference in the perception of classroom support (DeWit et al., 2010) while others found that girls perceived more encouragement and support in the classroom (Gherasim et al., 2013;Oelsner et al., 2011).Li and Kirkup (2007) investigated the differences in use of the Internet and computers use between Chinese and British students.They found that gender differences were higher in the British group than the Chinese groups with males in both countries expressing more self-confidence in their computer skills then women.In a study of 15-16 year olds, Colley and Comber (2003) found that increased exposure to computers over the last decade had not narrowed the gender gap.They found that boys liked computers more and were more self-confident in their use of computers than girls.In a study of ninth-grade natural science and mathematics students in Yugoslavia, Kadijecvich (2000) found that males showed a more positive attitude toward computers than females.
Recent studies of Turkish students have shown that a disparaging gap between genders also exists in the science classroom.An analysis of the Relevance of Science Education (ROSE) survey of 9 th grade students showed that girls had a more favorable attitude towards the environment in general, yet boys express higher interests in learning about environmental protection (Cavas et al., 2009).Studies of Turkish students have also shown the presence of a gender gap in students' perceptions of technology for learning.In a study of 9 th -12 th grade students in Istanbul, Turkey, Kahveci (2010) found that while female students did not have a negative attitude toward using computers for learning, they did lack confidence in using technology compared to male students.and Fraser, 2003;Aldridge et al., 2004).Each scale contains eight items and each item has two methods (actual and preferred), using a 5-point Likert scale (almost never, seldom, sometimes, often, and almost always).Table 2 provides a brief explanation of the scales of the TROFLEI and their relationship to Moos' conceptual framework.

Translation procedure
The TROFLEI was translated into Turkish using a multistep process.In the firststep, the Turkish researcher and two colleagues independently translated the instrument from English into Turkish.Three Turkish versions of the TROFLEI were then sent, along with the original English version of the TROFLEI to four other bilingual colleagues and asked whether they agreed with the translation.They indicated for each item whether they agreed with the translation; if they did not, they proposed an alternative in Turkish.
Finally, the Turkish researcher and another colleague assessed and discussed the responses and prepared the final version.This process was similar to the translation committee protocol, in which bilingual individuals work independently to translate the original text into the target language and then collaborate to reach a consensus on a final translation (Brislin, 1986).The Turkish version of the instrument was strengthened by carrying out back-translations as recommended by Brislin (1976).In order to complete the back-translation process, different people, independent of the project, who speak both English and Turkish were asked to translate the target Turkish version back into the source language of English without having the original English version to influence their translation.These translators were not involved with the initial source to target translation.
In the end, three individuals who were in three different regions of the USA working independently were asked to translate the Turkish version of the instrument back into English.Although they were not teachers of children in the target population grade, they were asked to keep in mind the ages of the students who would be participating in order to ensure that the level of complexity of language was suitable for that age group.As each of the individuals returned their translation, the American researcher combined them all into a single table.
There were no major discrepancies between the different versions, or between the original TROFLEI instrument in English and the version that resulted from the back-translation.The resulting items for both the Turkish translation and the English version of the TROFLEI are shown in Appendix1.

Cross-cultural validation
The cross-cultural validation of the Turkish version of the TROFLEI was conducted and the TURKISH TROFLEI was found to be reliable (Welch etal., 2012).Cronbach's alpha (α) reliability coefficients were calculated for each scale.The results indicated that all scales have satisfactory internal consistency.The indices for the Turkish actual and preferred scales ranged from 0.820 to 0.920 and 0.842 to 0.931, respectively, and are similar to those reported in previous research using the TROFLEI (Dorman et al., 2006).Table 3 shows the reliability statistics for each version and each scale.

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship of gender between actual and preferred use of technology in the science classroom of Turkish students.The Turkish version of the TROFLEI administered to 985 students from across twelve different districts of Istanbul, Turkey.Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to explore the relationship of gender between the actual and preferred use of technology.

Scale score differences
Means and standard deviations were computed for the actual and preferred scalesof the TROFLEI.A comparison of the mean scores of the actual and preferred scales isshown in Figure 1.T-tests were used to calculatethe statistical significance of the difference.Cohen's d (1988) was used to calculate the effect size using the equations below: According to Cohen, effect sizes of 0.2 are considered small effects, 0.5 as medium effects, and 0.8 as large effects.Results are shown in Table 4.The mean scores for the actual scale of the TROFLEI ranged from 3.17 for Computer Usage to 4.12 for Student Cohesiveness, suggesting that students overall perceived technology-supported science classroom as beneficial and that technology usage was commonplace in their classroom environments.For the preferred scales of the TROFLEI, mean scoresranged from 3.87 for Differentiationto 4.58 for Investigation, suggesting that students desire more individualized instruction and activities that engage in high order thinking skills.

Student Cohesiveness
The extent to which students know, help and are supportive of one another.R

Teacher Support
The extent to which the teacher helps, befriends trusts and is interested in students.R

Involvement
The extent to which students have attentive interest, participate in discussions, do additional work and enjoy the class.R

Investigation
The extent to which skills and processes of inquiry and their use in problem solving and investigation are emphasized.P

Task Orientation
The extent to which it is important to complete activities planned and to stay on the subject matter.P

Cooperation
The extent to which students cooperate rather than compete with one another on learning tasks.P

Equity
The extent to which students are treated equally by the teacher.S

Differentiation
The extent to which teachers cater for students differently on the basis of ability, rates of learning and interests.S

Computer Usage
The extent to which students use their computers as a tool to communicate with others and to access information.S

Young Adult Ethos
The extent to which teachers give students responsibility and treat them as young adults.P R: Relationship; P: Personal development; S: System maintenance and system change (Adapted from Dorman and Fraser, 2009, p. 82).The t-tests indicated a statistically significant difference (p <.001)between actual and preferred scores for all TROFLEI scales.Students strongly desired more teacher support, investigation activities, and computer usages in their classrooms.Cohen's d ranges from.44 for Student Cohesiveness to 1.10 for Teacher Support, suggesting medium to large effects and potential areas for improvement (Figure 1).

Gender differences
Differences in students' perceptions of technologysupported science classrooms were explored for each TROFLEI scale, using means and standard deviation along witht-tests.The effect size was computed using Cohen's d.The results of the difference between actual and preferred scores for the female students are  presented in Table 5.The results of the male students are presented in Table 6.The mean scores for the female students for the actual scale of the TROFLEI ranged from 3.15 for Differentiation to 4.24 for both Student Cohesiveness and Equity, suggesting that the female students overall feel that the classroom is a supportive environment in which students are treated equally by their teachers.For the preferred scales of the TROFLEI, mean scores ranged from 3.11 for Computer Usage to 4.69 for Investigation, suggesting that femalestudents desire computer basedactivities that engage in high order thinking skills.
The t-tests indicated a statistically significant difference (p < .001) between actual and preferred scores for all TROFLEI scales.
Female students strongly desired more teacher support and investigation activities.Cohen's d ranges from.55 for Student Cohesiveness to 1.29 for Teacher Support, suggesting medium to large effects and potential areas for improvement.The mean scores for the male students for the actual scale of the TROFLEI ranged from 3.24 for Computer Usage to4.18 for both Student Cohesiveness, suggesting that the male students overall feel that the classroom is a supportive environment and they found learning science through the use of technology interesting, lively and informative.For the preferred scales of the TROFLEI, mean scores ranged from 3.87 for both Differentiation and ComputerUsage to 4.45 for Investigation, suggesting that male students desire that teachers cater to their individual needs based on ability, rate of learning, and interests, as well are wanting more computer based   activities that engage in high order thinking skills.The t-tests indicated a statistically significant difference (p < .001) between actual and preferred scores for all TROFLEI scales.Male students strongly desired more teacher support and investigation activities.Cohen's d ranges from.33 for Student Cohesiveness to .92 for Teacher Support, suggesting medium to large effects and potential areas for improvement.

Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship of gender between actual and preferred classroom environment and useof technology in the science classroom of Turkish students.Our results show that there are clear differences between all students in their perceptions of technology-supported science classrooms and opportunities for improvement, especially in the areas of differentiation and investigation.Students expressed desire for teachers to adapt instruction based on individual ability, rate of learning, and interests.In addition, students also desire activities that integrate more problem-solving techniques.
While some gender differences were found, girls expressing a significantly high desire for more computer usage in their science classrooms and boys preferring more differentiation of instruction, all students expressed an increased preference for more integration of more problem-solving techniques and investigations into the science classroom.
Studies have shown that cogitative and affective outcomes arestrongly influenced by students' perceptions of the classroom environment (Telli et al., 2007(Telli et al., -2008;;Wubbels and Brekelmans, 1998;Wubbels et al., 2006).Specifically, in science, the teacher-student relationship has been shown to be one of the most important factors in students' success (Doyle, 1986).Research has also shown strong inter-personal relationships between students and teachers are a pre-requisite for engaging students in learning activities (Brekelmans et al., 2000).
Our findings show that differences clearly exist between genders in their actual and preferred perceptions of classroom environment and their use of technology in the science classroom.This knowledge can serve as valuable information as educational reforms continue to evolve and educators seek to reach all students in their classrooms.The integration of technology into all classrooms can be an effective tool to strengthen instruction by providing individualized instruction, immediate feedback and motivation.
Telli S, Çakıroğlu J, den Brok P (2006).Turkish secondary education students' perceptions of their classroom learning environment and their attitude towards biology.In: D. L. Fisher & M. S. Khine (Eds.).Contemporary approaches to research on learning environments.Singapore: World Scientific.pp.517-542.Telli S, den Brok P, Çakıroğlu J (2007)(2008) I use the computer to take part in online discussions with other students.

İnternettenbilgitoplamakiçinbilgisayarkullanırım.
I use the computer to obtain information from the Internet.ErgenKültürü Young Adult Ethos Banagençbiryetişkingibidavranılır.I am treated like a young adult.
I am expected to think for myself.Banayetişkingibidavranılır.
I am dealt with as a grown up.Güvenilirbiriolarak Kabul edilirim.
I am regarded as reliable.Olgunolduğumdüşünülür.
I am considered mature.Banabağımsızolmaşansıverilmiştir.
I am given the opportunity to be independent.Kendiöğrenmesureciminsorumluluğunuustlenme miçinteşvikedilirim.
I am encouraged to take control of my own learning.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Comparison of actual and preferred means scores.

Table 3 .
Internal consistency reliability and scale statistics.

Table 4 .
Results of t-test and effect size calculations of the actual and preferred scales.

Table 5 .
Difference between actual and preferred scores for female students

Table 6 .
Difference between actual and preferred scores for male . Teacher-student interpersonal behavior in secondary science classes in Turkey.J. Brekelmans M (1998).The teacher factor in the social climate of the classroom.In: B. J. Fraser and H. J. Tobin (Eds.),International handbook of science education (pp.565-580).Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer.Wubbels T, Brekelmans M, den Brok P, van Tartwijk J (2006).An interpersonal perspective on classroom management in secondary classrooms in the Netherlands.In: C. Evertson& C. S. Weinstein (Eds.),Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice and contemporary issues.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates pp.1161-1191.TROFLEI in Turkish and English.