Several studies and strategic papers point out a general clamour from industries on a limited supply of technical, entrepreneurial, vocational education and training (TEVET) skills in Malawi. In the oil seeds and sugar industries, organisations lament as regards the quality and quantity of experts available in the local market. This paper analyses the availability of TEVET skills in the two industries from the perspective of employers in response to the industrial complaints. The study adopts the mixed-methods approach and uses semi-structured interviews, questionnaires and document analysis as tools for collecting data. The results indicate great disparities in the availability of TEVET skills against the demand from the industries. While critical skills is absent in the two industries, there is also need to promote multi-skilling at the artisan and technician levels to enable graduates to perform multiple-related functions once they are employed. The shortfall in the availability of skills in the two sectors has resulted in human resource shortfalls which are affecting production processes. The study suggests the facilitation of academia-industry linkages to promote harmonious working relationships which would ensure that curricula are informed by industrial needs.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) defines technical, vocational education and training (TVET) as “those aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupation in various sectors of economic life” (UNESCO, 2015). UNESCO argues that TVET equips people not only with vocational skills, but with a broad range of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are now recognized as indispensable for meaningful participation in work and life. Enyekit et al. (2011) added that TVET is a vehicle upon which the skills of the workforce are built. It is an instrument for change and development and a provider of service-oriented skills which play a significant role in economic revival for sustainable human capital development. Within the Southern African Development Committee (SADC) region, the concept of TVET incorporates entrepreneurial skills and hence becomes technical, entrepreneurial, vocational education and training (TEVET) (TEVETA Malawi, 2009). This is the concept adopted in this paper.
TEVET plays a pivotal role in agricultural and rural employment as it prepares people for work both in the formal and informal sector. Bisariya and Mishra (2015) observed that the better the TEVET training and the more refined the skills are in terms of human capital, the higher the income and the better the livelihoods of people in rural areas. Although, agriculture remains the key pillar for economic prosperity in the developing world, Clark (2006) observed that the training of agriculture experts in sub-Saharan Africa has failed to adequately replicate the performance of similar systems in other countries. In Mozambique, for example, most of the reforms occurring in agriculture education and training do not seem to capture the key elements of the innovation systems perspective (Davis et al., 2008). Furthermore, the current educational approaches do not adequately develop individual or organizational capabilities to innovate. Among other issues, they are unable to produce technically and professionally qualified human resources, conduct research and produce applied knowledge and technologies and conduct outreach and dissemination of research results. Vandenbosch (2006) therefore calls for increased investment in training and development of more relevant and effective agriculture education and training models that are responsive to changing demands in the labour markets.
In Malawi, the agricultural sector accounts for one third of the GDP and employs about 80% of the eligible population (World Bank and FAO, 2015). The primary objective of the government’s main development instrument, the Malawi Growth and Development Strategy (MGDS) II (2011 - 2016), is to reduce poverty through the promotion of agriculture and food security as a key priority area. The strategy recognises TEVET skills development as a catalyst for increasing agricultural productivity and diversification for sustainable economic growth. Enyekit and Enyenihi (2007) sums up that the role of technical and vocational education is to prepare people for employment in any occupation for which specialized education is required, and for which there is a societal need. While the MGDS II acknowledges that competencies, skills and knowledge are the foundation of Malawi’s productive base and its export capacity, the Malawi Labour Market Survey of 2013 (NSO, 2013) reveals a disconnection between those who demand and those who supply them (Government of Malawi, 2013a, b; TEVETA, 2009). Alide (2007) also pointed out lack of experts at the technician level in the industrial sector in Malawi. He argued that the status of TEVET personnel forms a dumb-bell shape- with more artisans at the bottom, few technicians in the middle and more engineers at the top, rather than the ideal triangular structure having relatively more artisans, fewer technicians and few engineers. Clark (2006) argues that agricultural education and training systems in sub-Saharan Africa have failed to build innovative and responsive systems. Among other issues, they have not succeeded to produce technically and professionally qualified human resources, conduct research and produce applied knowledge and technologies and conduct outreach and dissemination of research results.
This study analysed the availability of TEVET skills from the perspective of employers in the oil seeds industry at the factory level and sugar industry at the farm and factory levels in Malawi. The analysis was conducted as part of broad study to identify skills gaps which could derail the successful implementation of the country’s National Export Strategy (NES) 2013 – 2018. The NES is the government’s blueprint for increasing the production and export of manufactured products to address the current imbalance between imports and exports (Government of Malawi, 2013). It points out that the development of a demand-driven training system with quality TEVET programmes would facilitate the attainment of a skilled population base required to accelerate the country’s economic growth and development.
The oil seeds and sugar industries fall under the broader sector of food processing. Basically, food processing is the transformation of raw ingredients into food, or of food into other forms. Food processing typically takes clean, harvested crops or butchered animal products and uses these to produce attractive, marketable and often long shelf-life food products. Oilseeds can be processed into edible food products or crushed to produce vegetable oils and feed meals, providing multiple final uses in the food, feed and associated industries (Xia et al., 2012). The major oilseeds produced globally are soybeans, cottonseeds, rapeseeds or canola, peanuts and sunflower seeds.
The results of this study present the sets of TEVET skills required in each industry and then isolate skills which are locally available from those which are difficult to find or are completely unavailable. Skills limited in quality and quantity were also identified separately. In this study, quality was measured in terms of relevance of the skills or curricula in meeting industrial needs as well as their currency. The skills are analysed in relation to the Malawi TEVET Qualifications Framework (TQF) which comprises assistant operatives (Level 1), operatives (Level 2), artisans (Level 3) and technicians (Level 4).
For small companies and few large ones which are keen on maintaining lean staffing levels, it was revealed that operatives and artisans perform multiple functions for Levels 1 up to 3. The study also analyses skills at the professional or specialist level comprising graduate (bachelor’s degree) and postgraduate (postgraduate diploma and above) certificate holders.
Oil seeds industry
The interview results indicated that the production processes for the oil seeds industry involve farm management, seed drying and grading, seed crushing, oil extraction, oil refinement, product mixing, quality management and packaging. The industry requires expertise in agriculture extension services, agri-business, quality management, food technology including cooking oil and essential oils technology, sales and marketing, mechanical and electrical engineering, solvent plant engineering and machine operators. According to Xia et al. (2012), technical expertise in the oilseeds industry is needed both when managing the crops in the field as well as during post-harvest activities.
At the operative and artisan levels, the expertise required include expeller machine operators, electricians, turners, plumbers, general fitters and farm assistants (skilled irrigation, crops and livestock management). At the technician level, the companies need food technologists, farm scouters and supervisors, quality assurance supervisors, mechanical engineering technicians (with skills in tool machining), laboratory technicians and electrical engineering technicians. At the professional and specialist levels, they employ agri-business or farm managers (multi-skilled in crop and livestock management), mechanical engineers (with skills in plant installation and maintenance), electrical engineers, process engineers and monitoring and evaluation experts. The interviews showed the skills situation in this industry as depicted in Table 1.
The study, however, showed that the sector is facing an acute shortage of various experts. At the operative and artisan levels, 17 of the 24 interviewees (71%) stated that the sector has a short supply of farm scouters and machine operators equipped with new technology skills. Furthermore, 14 interviewees (58%) indicated a scarcity of fabricators, agri-business supervisors (with entrepreneurial skills) and food technologists at the technician level. The results are consistent with Rivera (2006) who argues that agriculture education and training in sub-Saharan Africa has failed succeeded to produce technically competent human resources due to several constraining factors such as limited resources and insufficient funding. The industry noted food technologists equipped with knowledge and skills related to essential oils technology like vetiva and lemon grass are hard to find on the local market. At the specialist level, 20 of the interviewees (83%) complained about a lack of farm managers multi-skilled in both crop and livestock management and procurement specialists while all the participants (100%) pointed out the shortage of graduate-level monitoring and evaluation (M&E) experts to be engaged in agri-business projects. It was observed that such M&E experts are usually outsourced outside the country to work in these projects and their remuneration packages are quite high. A summary of the level of skills shortage in this industry according to the questionnaire survey is presented in Table 2.
Sixteen of the 22 respondents (73%) in the questionnaire survey revealed that although mechanical engineering technicians and engineers, electrical and electronics technicians and engineers and process engineers are available on the local market, they are normally on high demand due to low graduation levels. Additionally, the technicians do not possess sufficient knowledge of modern machines. The respondents therefore proposed that training institutions need to introduce courses such as finance-for non-finance experts or basic accounting in technical programmes as well as leadership and management skills in technical programmes. Other courses mentioned were occupational health and safety skills, preventive maintenance, tool machining skills, project management and essential oils management including the extraction process. Organisations in this industry also called for university-industry linkages which would facilitate agreements on research projects and other simple activities like tool machining services which some companies are currently outsourcing abroad. Along the same line, Lututala (2012) portends that although the major skills gaps in Africa are cognitive (especially numerical and critical-thinking), non-cognitive (especially communication, leadership and decision-making) and technical (depends on industry), the non-cognitive skills are becoming increasingly important as the economies change and good leadership becomes indispensable.
Such linkages would also enable staff exchange programmes that would benefit academic staff to gain the much-needed industrial experience for them to appreciate the modern machines and technology being used by companies. It was observed that these university-industry linkages are currently given lip-service only.
Sugar industry
The study showed that this industry is composed of companies involved in the production of sugarcane products such as sugarcane, sugar, absolute ethanol, extra neutral alcohol, rectified alcohol, and food grade carbon dioxide. The processes involved in the sugar industry can broadly be categorised into sugarcane farming and factory processing (sugar milling).
Sugarcane farming
Sugarcane farming is related to a number of activities such as land preparation, planting, fertiliser application, irrigation, pest and disease control, weeding (chemical and physical weeding), cutting or harvesting and transportation. The interview results showed that personnel involved in these activities include general labourers, farm equipment operators, capitao (assistant supervisors), farm supervisors, farm managers, area managers, field managers and agriculture managers. As Nazir et al. (2013) explain with reference to Pakistan, well-qualified staffs are crucial in sugar production since the gap between potential and actual yield is growing due to poor farm management practices and post-harvest losses. Practically, land preparation and transportation is carried out by privately hired contactors. The sugarcane farms also houses a workshop for keeping farm and irrigation equipment, and is mostly managed by a foreman, auto-electrician and motor vehicle mechanic. Table 3 presents the skills situation in the sugarcane growing sector as obtained through the interviews.
All the 11 interviewees (representing 100%) indicated that the required personnel in this industry are available on the local market. However, the major challenge is related to low level of knowledge and skills in sugarcane farming among the experts. The interviewees further observed that a large part of the current content being taught in training institutions is long out-dated and the content on sugarcane farming is very minimal. For example, it was observed that some of the sugarcane varieties in the curriculum at the Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (LUANAR) are no longer in use in the industry. Consistent with the results of this study, Goel (2009) observed that the mismatch between training content and workplace skills is steadily growing as a result of disconnect between training institutions and the industry. There is need to initiate strategies of bridging the widening gap in the academia-industry relationship. Eight of the interviewees (73%) noted that their companies currently either train their staff internally through in-house capacity building programmes or send them to other countries for training like South Africa at the South Africa Sugar Research Institute in Durban. The institute offers three-week as well as five-week junior and senior certificate short courses, respectively.
Chidoko and Chimwai (2011) stress the importance of good crop management practices in sugarcane farming which could be provided through agricultural extension services. They observed that farmers require good access to extension services in order to improve their knowledge of farming practices like observing planting times, fertilizer application, pest and disease control and harvesting techniques. Additionally, farmers need to acquire the right expertise for post-harvest activities (Muli, 2014). The industry also pointed out that their operations are affected by low quality supervisory skills among farm supervisors and capitaos. Again, smallholder farmers in this industry lack business management skills which include entrepreneurial skills and basic accounting skills. According to the questionnaire survey, the extent of skills shortage in this industry is shown in Table 4.
Factory processing
Results from the interviews showed that the factory processing category can further be sub-divided into sugar and carbon dioxide production. For sugar production, the factory processes involved are extraction, clarification, evaporation, crystallisation, separation, drying, packing and dispatch. Other additional processes include fermentation, distillation and molecular sieve dehydration. The production of carbon dioxide involves ethanol scrubbing, CO2 equalising, CO2 compressing, dehumidification drying, refluxing, carbon filtering, police filtering, distillation and CO2 condensing. Muli (2014) stated that the quality of factory processes play a big role in the profitability of the products in sugar production.
The results also indicated that the companies need machine operators, general fitters, welders, boiler makers and turners at the operative and artisan level in the factory. At the technician level, they require the services of laboratory technicians, instrumentation technicians, refrigeration technicians, mechanical engineering technicians, electrical engineering technicians and charge hands (supervisors or team leaders). The industry also needs process, instrumentation, refrigeration, mechanical and electrical engineers at the specialist level. A depiction of the skills required in factory processing (sugar milling) is provided in Table 5.
However, the study indicates a significant shortage of certain experts in the sector. Ten of the eleven interviewees (91%) in this industry lamented the limited availability of pan boiler makers and machine operators, instrumentation technicians, advanced refrigeration technicians and motor vehicle technicians with knowledge of mechatronics. Furthermore, 7 of the interviewees (64%) observed that there is also a shortage of specialists such as process, instrumentation, chemical and mechanical engineers. Vandenbosch (2006) pointed out that the training of appropriate experts in the developing world requires increased investment in the development of effective agriculture education and training models which meet the fluid demands of the industry. All the 11 interviewees (100%) further suggested that training institutions need to integrate sugar technology skills in existing programmes to make them more relevant to the requirements of the industry. Additionally, they recommended the introduction of courses in instrumentation, quality management, occupational health and safety and pan boiler making with a bias in sugar processing. Ten of the interviewees (91%) observed that the current disparity in the demand and supply of skills in the country is caused by limited interaction between the industry and training institutions.
Two interviewees (18%) further indicated that short-term interventions could improve skills situation in the sugar sector. For instance, the Cane Growers Capacity Building Programme by Concern Universal is already showing signs of success in the lower Shire River Valley. Courtesy of the programme, the interviewees observed that cane growers in the area are now more organised than before in terms of governance and administration. Previously, they used to have several groupings which made coordination very difficult but these have been merged to create a single organisation. This is in line with Chidoko and Chimwai’s (2011) recommendation on the need to promote the establishment of cooperatives as well as improve agricultural extension services in sugar production. In spite of this success, the interviewees revealed that more still needs to be done to change the attitude of the farmers on critical issues such as time management and commitment. The questionnaire survey portrayed the skills status in factory processing (sugar milling) as presented in Table 6.
Review of TEVET programmes
TEVETA Malawi institutions provide training in 14 different trades and these are: Automobile mechanics (AMM), administrative studies (AS), bricklaying (BR), carpentry and joinery (CJ), electrical installation (EI), fabrication and welding (FW), food production (FP), general fitting (GF), motorcycle mechanics (MCM), painting and decorations (PD), plumbing (PL), printing (PR), refrigeration and air conditioning (RAC), tailoring and design (TD), vehicle body repair (VBR) and wood work machining (WWM).
Available data indicate that a total of 1,084 trainees were selected from the 16 TEVET providers in the 2013 recruitment. Table 7 presents the recruitment trend between 2005 and 2013 for TEVETA Malawi into public technical colleges.
Generally, access to tertiary education in Malawi is quite minimal. The Malawi Skills Development Project Brief (2014) puts the tertiary education enrolment rate in the country at only around 0.4%, which is one of the lowest in Africa. At 35 per 100,000 inhabitants, the enrolment into formal TEVET institutions is equally lower than those of other SADC countries, with Lesotho registering 110, Mozambique 130, Botswana 1228 and Mauritius 1561 (World Bank, 2010).
Out of the total 11,829 applicants who expressed interest to pursue programmes in TEVET institutions in 2013, only 5,289 trainees– representing nine percent got selected. It can therefore be valued that the rate of participation in the TEVET sector is very low. Figure 1 depicts the demand for apprenticeship training in 2013.
Other providers in the TEVET sector include the Malawi Polytechnic, Chancellor College, Automotive Mechatronics Training Centre, DMI-St John Baptist University, Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (LUANAR) including the Natural Resources College, Malawi University of Science Technology (MUST), Mwimba College of Agriculture, Malawi College of Fisheries and Marine College. Additionally, the Malawi Institute of Education (MIE) is responsible for developing, reviewing and reforming the primary and secondary school curricula as well as that the primary teacher education.
Malawi Polytechnic, a constituent college of the University of Malawi, is a centre of excellence in scientific and technological education and training. The mainstream college has a total student population of about 3,475, with 3369 pursuing undergraduate programmes and 106 undertaking postgraduate studies. An outline of the programmes is presented in Table 8.
The Malawi Polytechnic College also provides certificate and diploma programmes in technical and vocational education through the Continuing Education Centre (CEC) which works in partnership with faculties and departments within the college. The programmes range from mechanical, automobile and electrical engineering, and laboratory technology to secretarial studies and information technology. These programmes comprise college-owned courses as well as those offered through City and Guilds International and their average annual intake enrolment is 1,329. The single biggest contributor for Level 4 programmes is the Malawi Polytechnic through its self-developed programmes as well as those run under foreign-based examination boards (International Labour Organisation 2010; TEVETA, 2009). A similar centre, the Management Development Centre (MDC), also offers certificate and diploma courses in business administration, human resource management, logistics and transport, purchasing, banking, sales and marketing, and has an average annual intake of about 1,093 students.
The Automotive Mechatronics Training Centre, based at Stansfield Motors Limited in Blantyre, was established in 2007 under a public-private partnership to provide automotive diagnostic and repair technician programmes in order to improve the quality of technical capacity in the transport sector. The centre offers two programmes, a nine-month certificate and 18-month diploma in automotive mechatronics, which are accredited by TEVETA Malawi. Since its opening, 46 trainees have graduated from the centre and its annual intake ranges between 7 and 13 students. The curriculum of the programmes comprises auto-electronic content which is collaboratively designed and reviewed by the Daimler Global Training Consulting in Germany and the centre. The centre has state-of-the-art equipment such as an auto-electronics laboratory fitted with latest Mercedes Benz technology, computer-based training laboratory and three running training vehicles. Stansfield Motors plans to hand over the centre in the future to an established training institution once proper operational arrangements are put in place.
The DMI-St John Baptist University is another institution which offers technical and vocational education programmes. Among other diploma and degree programmes, the private university offers information technology management, computer science and engineering. During the 2014 intake, the university enrolled about 171 students- a majority of whom gets admitted into the business-related programmes. Current plans indicate that new programmes will be developed in the field of education. An additional programme will also be developed in secretarial studies and will include a course in computer-based typing to address the challenge facing secretaries in the modern era.
Experts in the agriculture sector are mainly trained by LUANAR. The university recently merged with the Natural Resources College (NRC) although this process has not yet been implemented. For this reason, these two institutions are discussed separately. LUANAR offers seven PhD programmes, 24 masters’ programmes, three postgraduate diploma programmes, 26 undergraduate degree programmes and four diploma programmes. An outline of the programmes is presented in Table 9.
In the 2014/15 academic year, LUANAR had an intake of 766 first year students, 320 mature students and 114 postgraduate students. Although, LUANAR has 61 programmes in the field of agriculture, there is no programme which specialises in sugarcane agriculture or sugarcane technology. These subjects are only covered as part of the broad area of agronomy. However, the scope of their programmes includes agro-processing under which oil seeds science is covered as well as agriculture engineering where farming mechanisation is taught.
The newly-opened Malawi University of Science and Technology (MUST) is providing training in a range of programmes which will impact on the development and growth of the manufacturing, oil seeds and sugar clusters. The university, whose vision is to be world class centre of science and technology education, research and entrepreneurship, has this year registered its first students and the intake figures are presented in Table 10.
Furthermore, the university will, in the next few years, enrol more students in the new programmes of BSc in Geriatric Medicine, BSc in Sports Medicine, BSc (Hon) in Traditional and Herbal Medicine, BSc (Hon) in Cancer and Palliative Care, BSc (Hon) in Earth Sciences, BSc (Hon) in Meteorology and Climate Science and BEng (Hon) Manufacturing Engineering.
At Chancellor College, the Faculty of Science also offers programmes which contribute human resource to the prioritised sectors of the NES. The faculty enrols an average of 95 students annually in its undergraduate programmes and 27 in the postgraduate programmes. At the undergraduate level, the faculty offers the Bachelor of Science (generic), Bachelor of Science (Food and Nutrition) and Bachelor of Science (Family and Consumer Sciences), while the Master degree level includes the Master of Science in Environmental Sciences, Master of Science in Water Resources Modelling and Governance, Master of Science in Biostatistics, Master of Science in Informatics, Master of Science in (Biology/Chemistry/Mathematics). The faculty is, however, planning to introduce new programmes such as the specialised Bachelor of Science degrees in biological sciences, chemistry, computer sciences, geology and mining, human geography, mathematics, statistics and physics. There are also plans to introduce the MSc in actuarial sciences.
The Natural Resources College in Lilongwe also offers diploma programmes in the field of agriculture. The field of study for the programmes include agriculture, irrigation, environmental management, food nutrition, animal health and horticulture. The college also runs a degree course in food technology. The annual enrolment rate for the college is 500, with about 250 students being recruited each semester. The vision of the college is to be a leading and self-sustaining agriculture, environment and natural resources management centre of excellence within Malawi and beyond. The college is planning to introduce more degree programmes in the near future. Another agricultural training institution is Mwimba College of Agriculture in Kasungu. It is an arm of the Agricultural Research and Extension Trust (ARET) responsible for training tobacco experts and farmers in the country. The college provides a one-year certificate in agriculture as well as a two-and-a-halfyear diploma in agriculture programme. Tailor- made short courses are also organised from time-to-time depending on demand, and the participants include foreign-based students from Zambia and Mozambique. In 2014, the college enrolled 58 new students but the rate will rise significantly following the completion of a new hostel. Plans are underway to develop new programmes in livestock management and irrigation farming.
At the Malawi College of Fisheries in Mangochi, there is a pre-service diploma programme being offered for Fisheries Technical Assistants. The curriculum includes boat-building, fishing gear technology and marine engineering which involves boat engine maintenance skills. The collegeal so runs some outreach training programmes for communities around Mangochi. The diploma programme runs for two years and has an annual average intake of 20 students. However, the college has a maximum capacity of 50 students but this figure is not met due to availability of limited resources. There are currently plans to introduce a Bachelor of Science in Aquaculture and Fisheries Management programme. It was also revealed that about three years ago, the Government of Malawi announced plans to merge the Malawi College of Fisheries and Marine College to form the University of Marine Biology. The university was expected to develop programmes in shipping, navigation, tourism and hospitality management and customs clearing.
Another training institution in the fishing industry is the Marine College in Monkey Bay which trains personnel for fishing vessels. The college currently offers a four-year advanced diploma programme in marine engineering and navigation. The programme’s curriculum focuses on marine engineering, navigation and skipping. Previously, the institution used to run six-month training programmes in which trainees were only awarded a certificate of competence but now the focus is on merchant fishing. The Marine College enrols about 30 students in each intake. However, they only register new students after every four years as the college cannot accommodate two cohorts at once due to lack of adequate resources. With resources permitting, the college plans to introduce degree and diploma programmes in marine engineering, navigation, shipping logistics, shipping management and naval architecture. The college also hinted on the planned merger with the Malawi College of Fisheries.
At the MIE, recent developments indicate that the primary school curriculum was reviewed around 2007 to accommodate emerging issues in the education sector. Prior to the review, the primary school curriculum had a subject titled craft and technology which comprised topics in wood work, metal work, and technical drawing and design. However, educational research findings indicated that the content in the various fields was very narrow and could better be taught as separate subjects. Following the review, the current curriculum has stand-alone subjects in science and technology, expressive arts, creative arts and performing arts. Under science and technology, the content is made up of biology, chemistry, technology, home economics and physics while the creative arts includes drawing, sculpture, needlecraft and decorations. The expressive arts comprise physical education and the performing arts consist of drama and music. The MIE also indicated that another subject, craft and technology, is currently being piloted in six primary schools.
The secondary school level is made up of independent technical subjects such as wood work, metal work, technical drawing, clothing and textiles, performing arts, creative arts, computer studies and business studies. Entrepreneurship and life skills are, however, integrated as in all these subjects as core elements– entailing that they are included as broad areas of study where topics are drawn from. In the primary teacher education programme, the content mirrors that for primary schools, only that the content has more depth. MIE therefore recommends that there is need to have more stand-alone subjects in technical and vocational education at both the primary and secondary school levels. It was also suggested that it should be mandatory for future secondary school students to be studying at least one technical and vocational subject during the course of their learning. Craft and technology was provided as an example as the subject is not resource intensive and does not require a complicated workshop and it can easily be taught in community day secondary schools. If resources could be available, the institute further recommend the introduction of some basic elements of automobile mechanics, auto-electrics and electronics at the secondary school level.
