Full Length Research Paper
ABSTRACT
This study assessed and documented ethnoecological knowledge of the indigenous people of Ada’a District that has important contribution in the conservation of wild medicinal plants. Both purposive and random sampling methods were used to collect appropriate data. Quantitative and qualitative ethnobotanical methods were used to analyze the ethnoecological data. A significance test on the indigenous knowledge variation of the average number of reported medicinal plants was assessed. Results indicated that a total of 112 wild medicinal plants belonging to 53 families were recorded. Moreover, the indigenous knowledge about the medicinality of the reported medicinal plants were found to be evenly known (P>0.05) by all informants regardless of their demographic characteristics (gender, age, level of education, marital status, and experiences). On top of this, it was found that the district has important traditional ecological knowledge that has a substantial contribution for the conservation of the medicinal plants in the wild. Therefore, we recommend that the district agricultural organization should synergize the existing traditional ecological knowledge with the conventional scientific approaches that are being promoted and implemented in the district for ensuring sustainable, integrated and long- term management of wild medicinal plants in the study area.
Key words: Ada’a District, ethnoecology, traditional ecological knowledge, Wild medicinal plants.
INTRODUCTION
Biodiversity is correlated with human cultural diversity (Cotton, 1996); and their links are of great concern to ethnobiology as this field of study emphasizes the relationship between indigenous people and the biota where they live (Kefalew and Sintayehu, 2018). To examine the different aspects of these interactions Ethnobiology has moved into a wider multidisciplinary approach (Asfaw and Wondimu, 2007).
One dimension of ethnobiology that focuses on studying the interaction of indigenous people and their ecosystems is ethnoecology (also called ecological ethnobotany) (Martin, 1995; Cotton, 1996). These relationships can be social, economic, symbolic, religious, commercial and/or artistic (Williams and Muchena, 1991; Balick and Cox, 1996). Ethnoecology stresses on documenting traditional ecological knowledge(TEK), which may include the culture and beliefs that have been handed down through generations by cultural transmission (Balick, 1996).
Ethnoecological knowledge can be applied in long term management and conservation strategies of biodiversity in general (Pedroso-Junior and Sato, 2005; Harisha et al., 2016) and wild medicinal plants in particular (Aumeeruddy and Ji, 2003; Ghimire et al., 2004). In supporting this fact, the International organizations such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and UNESCO in their joint program titled ‘The People and Plants Initiative’ have been encouraging the role of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) as well as integration of people’s perception and practices in resource management at the local level (Cunningham, 2001). Moreover, the Convention for Biological Diversity (CBD), which has been ratified by 178 countries including Ethiopia on the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, appreciates the role of indigenous knowledge in biodiversity conservation in general and wild medicinal plants in particular especially in its statements under Article 8j. Thus, identifying and promoting traditional ecological knowledge as a new model in environmental management is really a core section of applied ethnoecology and/or ethnobotany (Alexiades, 1996; Turner, 2000; Hamilton et al., 2003).
Despite the increasing recognition of the importance of TEK as a key tool to environmental management and conservation initiatives, such an approach has been poorly implemented around many parts of Ethiopia due to erosion of TEK (Demisse, 2001; Kibebew, 2001). This is also the case in the Ada’a District, East Shewa Zone of Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia which is negatively impacting the people’s culture associated to biodiversity conservation and management practices of wild medicinal plants. Thus, this study is initiated to document existing TEK of the indigenous people of Ada’a District that could have important contribution in the conservation of wild medicinal plants.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study site
The study was conducted from 2015 to 2017 in Ada’a District, East Shewa Zone of Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia (Figure 1). The district is located in the dry evergreen Afromontane Forest Ecosystem of Ethiopia (Friis et al., 2011). The district is characterized by a monsoonal climate, which is marked by a wet summer (June-September) and a dry winter (February-May). The mean minimum annual temperature ranges from 9.4 to 13.7°C and the mean maximum annual temperature ranges from 24.2 to 29.2°C (EMA, 2015). The study site is
characterized by unimodal rainfall with an annual mean precipitation of 73. 43 mm (calculated based on long term data from 2000 to 2015) ranging from 7. 3 to 209.8 mm. About 46.55% of the district is believed to be covered by natural forests (ADAO, 2016).
Ethnobotanical information
Ethics statement
All necessary permits for the described field studies were issued by the Administration Bureau of the district, East Shewa Zone of Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia following the directions in Cunningham (1996) and the Code of Ethics of the Society of Ethnobiology (International Society of Ethnobiology, 1998). Informed consent was also obtained from all informants following a standard ethnobotanical consent procedure.
Informant selection
Informants were representatives of the local/indigenous people of the district who could provide the ethnomedicinal/ethnoecological information. The age of the informants ranged from 18 to 85. Participants were chosen both systematically and randomly. Demographic data for the population of the district were in the ratio of 66:34 for men and women (ADAO, 2016). Keeping the same proportion, a total of 105 informants (69 males and 36 females) were selected from 15 kebeles (7 informants per kebele). Sixty of the total informants (4 per kebele) were randomly selected. This was done in various ways. Some of them were chosen by tossing a coin and using him/her as informant whenever head of the coin was up if he/she had volunteered to participate. Some others were chosen accidentally during random walks made to houses in the selected areas. The other 45 of the total informants (3 per kebele) were local experts (key informants) that were selected systematically based on recommendations from the local people, local authorities and development agents at each study sites. Their socio-demography is summarized in Table 1.
Semi-structured interview
A semi-structured checklist was prepared in advance to ensure informant consensus about the traditional ecological knowledge and medicinality of each herbal, following Cunningham (2001). The interviews were done on and around this checklist and some issues were raised depending on responses of informants. The language that has been used most frequently with the informants was Amharic (common language of the district). Oromiffa (local language of the district) was also used with the help of interpreters who had good knowledge of the local cultures and vegetation. The interviews were done with those born in, or have lived most of their lives in, the district.
Plant interview
This method (Gerique, 2006) was used to know the medicinality of each herbal collected from each study locality. In this method, medicinal plants were collected from the studied field area and brought back to the nearest village and presented to the randomly chosen informants to indicate wheather the species have medicinal qualities. When the freshly collected species were lost due to desiccation, pressed specimens were used during the interviews.
Group discussion
Group discussions, which were employed in each kebele, were used for cross-checking and verifying the information gathered via semi-structured interview and plant interview following Cotton (1996). The discussions were made with key informants, other traditional healers and the local people sometimes altogether or alone in their categories during the field study; and that information was recorded using a tape-recorder. Brief introduction was given to the groups so as to encourage them to discuss sincerely and frankly. The places and time for discussion were arranged based on the availability of the informants.
Methods of data collection on wild medicinal plants
Sampling design
Out of the 27 kebeles (the smallest administrative units) in the District, 15 of them (55.6%) (Chelebaselase, Dere, Dereshoki, Gerbicha, Godino, Golbo, Hidi, Hidideko, Kajimanadibayou, Kality, Koftu, Kurkuranadembi, Tuludimtu, Wajitunadebandebe, and Yererselase) were used for data collection. The selection of the 15 kebeles was made by purposive sampling method based on the availability of key informants identified with the assistance of local authorities and elders. The informants categorized the availability of wild medicinal vegetation of the district into six general habitat types, namely Laffa Bosoona (Forest land), Laffa Mukke (Wood lands), Laffa Choroka (Wet lands), which is in line with the definition given by Ramsar Convention Bureau (1997), Laffa Merga (Grass lands), Laffa hori edu (Grazing lands) and Laffa ekiri (Fallow land). Within each kebele, localities were identified based on these six habitats. This procedure gave a total of 95 localities from which 59 sampling units were selected by taking one locality for each habitat type in each kebele using the lottery method (Table 2). This stratification procedure gave 8 forest land localities, 15 woodlands, 7 wetlands, 11 grasslands, 15 grazing lands and 3 fallow lands. The selection of localities based on stratification by habitat type was chosen as it is the best representative sample for capturing the medicinal plant and ethnomedicinal knowledge in the district. It is noted that not every kebele was represented by each of the habitat types.
Plant identification
Medicinal plant species which were readily identifiable were recorded in the field. Those ethnomedicinal plants, which were difficult to identify in the field, were temporarily stored in a plastic bag; and then were pressed and brought to the National Herbarium (ETH) of Addis Ababa University (AAU) where they were dried, deep frozen and identified. The identifications were done first using keys of published volumes of Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea (Gilbert, 1989; Demissew, 2006; Friis, 2006; Tadesse, 2004), and later supported with identification by comparisons with already authenticated dried specimen in the Herbarium. At last, all the medicinal plant species were confirmed with the help of taxonomic experts in AAU.
Data analysis
Descriptive statistical methods such as percentage frequency method of data analysis were employed to summarize some of the descriptive ethnobotanical data obtained from the interviews on reported medicinal plants and associated knowledge. Microsoft Excel spreadsheet software (Microsoft Corporation, 2010) was employed for organizing and analysing some ethnobotanical data. Inferential statistical analyses using two sample independent t-tests were performed to check whether there was a significant difference among the different parameters of informants (gender, age, literacy level, informant experience, marital status and living distance from health centre) for their knowledge about the medicinality of the reported medicinal plants. P-value was set at 0.05.
RESULTS
Ethnotaxonomy and composition of wild ethnomedicinal species
A total of 112 wild ethnomedicinal plants species (locally referred as Qoricha uruffa in Oromo language) (Table 3) were identified and documented from the study area. These species can be grouped into 97 genera and 53 families (Appendix 1). Of these medicinal plant species, 10 (9%) were endemic to Ethiopia (Table 4). Shrubs (locally called Muke or Mukaa titika / xixina in Oromo language) took the highest proportion whereas lianas (locally called Hidda Jebata in Oromo language) took the least proportion (Figure 2).
Statistical test on the ethnomedicinal knowledge of the local people
The questionnaire respondents represented a diverse array of people including farmers, women, literate, illiterate, youngsters, elders, married and unmarried. Among the 105 informants, 69 (65.7%) were male and 36 (34.3%) were females. The largest proportions of the respondents were elders (70.5%) above 30 years old (Table 5). Most respondents were not able to write and read (60%) whereas about 40% of the respondents were joined at least formal school of grade one and able to write or read. Among the respondents 86.7% of them dwell far away (> 5 Km) from the centre of health centres and/or Bishoftu town; whereas only few (13.3%) of them were living near (< 5 Km) to the Bishoftu town. Inferential statistical test of significance on average number of reported wild medicinal plants by the different groups of informants in Ada’a District is shown in Table 5.
Traditional knowledge on conservation of wild medicinal plants
Semi-structured interview carried out with the key informants revealed the presence of various local beliefs and cultural traditions that have conservation values of medicinal plants. Some of them are shown in Table 6.
DISCUSSION
Diversity of plant species used medicinally
Results with regard to wild medicinal plant composition (locally called Qoricha Urufa) suggest that the district was once primarily a typical dry Afromontane Forest ecosystem of Ethiopia. This is due to the presence of remnant characteristic species for the vegetation type of dry evergreen Afromontane Forests (Demissew and Friis, 2009; Friis et al., 2011). These species include Croton macrostachyus, Juniperus procera, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata locally called Bekanisa, Gatira and Ejersa, respectively; and are still retained in the existing landscape of the district as medicinal herbals. The local people use a taxonomically diverse group of wild medicinal plants, about 112 species in 97 genera and 53 families. The availability of diverse medicinal plant species in the wild were also reported from all corners of Ethiopia (Abebe, 1986; Abebe and Ayehu, 1993; Asfaw, 1997, 2001; Abebe, 2001; Asfaw and Tadesse, 2001; Bekele, 2007; Birhane et al., 2011; Assefa and Abebe, 2014; Tolossa et al., 2013; Kidane et al., 2014; Mesfin et al., 2014; Megersa et al., 2013; Belayneh and Bussa, 2014; Seifu et al., 2006; Chekole et al., 2015; Lulekal et al., 2008; Bussmann et al., 2011). This is attributed to the fact that wild habitats are the main storehouse of medicinally useful plants. Some of these medicinal plants were recorded to be economically important plants used for many other purposes in the district. For example, Juniperus procera, Acacia albida, Croton macrostachyus, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, and Prunus africana were some of the medicinal plants in the district with multiple purposes other than their medicinal values (Kefalew et al., 2015). Some of the medicinal plants identified in this study were reported elsewhere to have other use values other than their therapeutic quality. For example, Cordia africana, C.macrostachyus, J. procera, Prunus africana, O. europea, Ekibergia capensis were reported for the purpose of timber in different areas of Ethiopia (Lulekal et al., 2008; Mesfin et al., 2013). Similarly other medicinal species such as Acacia abyssinica, Acacia albida, Acacia seyal were also reported elsewhere for home garden agro-forestry purposes such as fencing and shading (Hailu and Asfaw; 2009; Awas and Demissew, 2009; Amberber et al., 2013; Abebe et al., 2013; Linger et al., 2014; Tefera et al., 2014); whereas, Euphorbia ampliphyla, Euphorbia abyssinica, C. macrostachyus, and Vernonia amygdalina were recorded for their purpose of beehive making and/or bee forage (Senbeta et al., 2013).
The findings of this study showed that shrubby herbals were the most dominant form of wild medicinal plants in the district followed by herbaceous forms. Similar findings were noted elsewhere in Ethiopia (Hunde et al., 2004; Yineger and Yewhalaw, 2007; Lulekal et al., 2008; Mesfin et al., 2009). This may be linked with the custom of the local people to use plants that are available almost all the time. In line with this fact, Martin (1995) and Cotton (1996) suggested that knowledge of medicinal plants directly emanates/originates from the type of the plants they are surrounded by. In this regard, shrubby herbals are the most available form of herbals in almost all year as they are tolerant to seasonal variation (Albuquerque, 2006) and might have had a high chance of being chosen by the local people of the study area. On the contrary, the ecological nature of herbaceous medicinal plants is normally an annual and more subjected to influences by small scale environmental variations than shrubs are. Moreover, apart from seasonal variation, grazing intensity in the study area might have contributed to the lesser number of herbaceous medicinal plants than shrubs (Kefalew, 2010).
This effect of grazing on herbaceous medicinal plants was also noted elsewhere (Adnan and Holscher, 2010). The rather fewer contribution of trees for therapeutic purposes in the district may be linked with the less abundance of tree species that resulted from previous over exploitation and habitat modification history of trees mainly for the purposes other than their medicinal values (Aba Geda Tulema, Pers. comm).
The plant families such as Asteraceae (11 species, 9.82%), Lamiaceae (11 species, 9.82%), Fabaceae (5 species, 4.46%), Solanaceae (5 species, 4.46%), Apiaceae (4 species, 3.57%), Cucurbitaceae (4 species, 3.57%) and Euphorbiaceae (4 species, 3.57%) are found to be the most common plant families composed of wild medicinal plants in the District. This goes in agreement with most of the ethnomedicinal studies in Ethiopia (Giday, 2007; Giday et al., 2007, 2009, 2010; Giday and Teklehaymanot, 2013; Teklehaymanot and Giday, 2007; Adefa and Getaneh, 2013). This indicates the high contribution of these plant families to most of the medicinal flora of the country, Ethiopia.
The relatively high contribution of these families other than other families may originate from their high species richness in the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea (Kelbessa and Demissew, 2014). In line with this notion, Saqib et al. (2011) have found a strong positive correlation (r = 0.88) between the overall species richness of vegetation and the associated ethnomedicinal plant species richness in Pakistan. Moreover, critical observation on the finding of Giday (2001), Lulekal (2005), Yineger (2005), Giday (2007), Awas (2007), Lulekal (2014) and Regassa (2016) on the joint study of vegetation and ethnomedicinal plant diversity showed that the species richness of both the general vegetation and medicinal flora follow the same pattern and seem to be directly related. In line with this Erdelen et al. (1999) and Edwards (2001) concluded the presence of greater concentration of medicinal plant diversity at the areas where there is higher concentration of biological and cultural diversity.
The finding of this study showed that about 10% of the collected medicinal plants are endemic to Ethiopia, which follows almost the same proportion of endemism for the Flora of Ethiopia and Eriterea (Kelbessa and Demissew, 2014). This endemic medicinal flora in Ada’a District includes Acacia abyssinica, Inula confertiflora, Impatiens rothii, Jasminum stans, Laggera tomentosa, Lippia adoensis, Otostegia integrifolia, Rhus glutinosa, Solanecio gigas, Solanum marginatum, Thymus schimperi and Urtica simensis (Kelbessa et al., 1992; Friis, 1989; 2006; Giibert, 1989; Tadesse, 2000, 2004; Green, 2003; Vivero et al., 2005; Demissew, 2006; Ryding, 2006). Some of these medicinal species reported in this study were also reported elsewhere by Lulekal et al. (2013, 2014) for Ankober District in North Shewa Zone, Hunde et al. (2004) for Welechiti area in East Shewa Zone, and Amenu (2007) for Cheliya District in West Shewa Zone of Ethiopia.
Conservation implication of the indigenous ecological knowledge of Ada’a District
This study also found important belief and cultures of the local people that have important actions on the conservation of some of the wild medicinal plants. For instance, cutting plants that are of importance for religious purposes (e.g., Acacia spp., Ficus spp.) is considered as committing a curse since these plants and many others are respected for religious reasons. Thus, the local people protect and preserve the plant species that are strongly associated with beliefs and religion and hesitate to destroy them. This study also found that forests on the highland areas are protected as these areas are perceived to be a sacred area. This may be attributed with the tradition that the Qallus’, who are supposed to serve between the human and Ayyanna (spirit) and has a role equivalent to the role of Bishop in the Christian word and of Imam in the Muslim word, often build their Gelma (traditional Oromo ritual hall/church) on such high land areas. Hence, highland forests are believed to be a special place where the Qallus’ live and worship and therefore considered as sacred place where cutting of any plant is considered as sin.
This study also found another traditional ecological knowledge which is very vital in the conservation of vegetation in general and medicinal plants in particular that are adjacent to water bodies and wet-lands. According to the culture of the study area, wet lands should not be expected to be “exposed” and need to be covered by vegetation as such places are areas to worship the spirit of the river or wet lands in general (locally called Borenticha). In line withthis, Martin (1995), Cotton (1996) and Cunningham (2001) have indicated the contributions of cultural and traditional beliefs in the conservation of plant species and ecosystems. Studies conducted elsewhere in Ethiopia have found related cultural beliefs and traditional practices, which contribute to the conservation of medicinal plants in particular, and biodiversity as a whole. For example, Tolosa (2007) listed out various local beliefs and cultural traditions used for the conservation of medicinal plants (MPs) in Gimbi District of Western Ethiopia. Tefera et al. (2015) similarly assessed the importance of local ecological knowledge associated with conservation of some plants on agricultural landscapes of Debark District in the Northern Ethiopia. Abbink (1995) explored medicinal plants that have ritual and conservation values for the Ethiopian southwest people. Mesfin (2007) also documented cultural and spiritual beliefs used for the conservation of MPs in Wonago District of the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Regional States of Ethiopia. Moreover, the Geda cultures of Oromo people of Ethiopia also have an important contribution in biodiversity conservation (Keller, 1995; Wemlinger, 2008; Mergo, 2014; Getahun, 2016), which creates a conducieve enviroment for wild medicinal plant conservation. Similarly, Wassie (2008) also noted the tradition of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC) in the northern part of Ethiopia for the conservation of Biodiversity in general and hence medicinal plants, basically, due to the words in Genesis 2: 8-10 and 2:15 of the Holy Bible. Likewise, a number of rituals, ceremonies and customs related to sacred trees with medicinal value were documented elsewhere in the Middle East (Dafni, 2007) and north-eastern Brassil (Albuquerque et al., 2008).
Knowledge of informants about the medicinality of herbs
In ethnobotanical science an herb is a plant or plant part valued for its medicinal, aromatic or savoury qualities (Martin, 1995). Unlike many other studies that show significant variation of the knowledge of traditional medicinal plants among the genders of informants, ages of informants, educational status of informants, experiences of informants and marital status of informants (Teklehymanot, 2009; Lulekal et al., 2013, 2014), this study found that there was similar knowledge of traditional medicinal plants among these informant parameters. The similarity in the indigenous knowledge of herbals among traditional healers may be attributed to equal access of their family members to the existing indigenous knowledge regardless of age, gender, level of education and marital status. A similar observation was revealed by Yineger and Delenasaw (2007) in Sekoru District of southwest Ethiopia.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This study documented 112 wild medicinal plants that can be grouped into 97 genera and 53 families. This study also found that there are traditional perspectives and cultural beliefs which would maintain the ecology of medicinal plant species. Thus, integrating the ethnoecological perspectives of the local/indigenous people would be helpful for better ecosystem management in general and wild medicinal plants in particular. Moreover, active formal and/or informal local institutions should be developed to sustain this traditional knowledge in the district.
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the Second Thematic Research Fund of Addis Ababa University for the financial support and also thank the Department of Plant Biology and Biodiversity Management (AAU) and Vrije Universiteit Brussels (Belgium) that facilitated the study in several ways. Colleagues at the National Herbarium were very helpful in the identification of herbals and deserve gratitiude. The local informants are highly appreciated for their contribution in the field work. IDEA WILD is strongly appreciated for its field device assistance that has impressively supported the achievement of this study.
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