Journal of
Infectious Diseases and Immunity

  • Abbreviation: J. Infect. Dis. Immun.
  • Language: English
  • ISSN: 2141-2375
  • DOI: 10.5897/JIDI
  • Start Year: 2009
  • Published Articles: 94

Review

Toxoplasma gondii: Deeper understanding of epidemiology, virulence and pathophysiology enhances diagnosis and informs vaccine design

Shiferaw Bekele Woyesa
  • Shiferaw Bekele Woyesa
  • School of Medical Laboratory Science, Institute of Health Science, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia.
  • Google Scholar
Andrew W. Taylor-Robinson
  • Andrew W. Taylor-Robinson
  • Infectious Diseases Research Group, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University, Brisbane, Australia. 3College of Health and Human Sciences, Charles Darwin University, Casuarina, Australia.
  • Google Scholar


  •  Received: 25 September 2020
  •  Accepted: 01 April 2021
  •  Published: 30 April 2021

References

Abakar A (2002). Prevalence of haemonchus contortus in goats in south darfur, sudan: An abattoir survey. 27th World Vetenary Congress, Tunis, 25th to 29th September 2002.

 

Abebe G, Dawson LJ, Detweiler G, Gipson TA, Sahlu T (2000). Hagenia abyssinica (kosso) for internal parasite control in goats Conference held at Debub University, Awassa, Ethiopia, November 10 to 12, 2000.

 
 

Ademola I, Fagbemi B, Idowu S (2004). Evaluation of the anthelmintic activity of Khaya senegalensis extract against gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep: In vitro and in vivo studies. Veterinary Parasitology 122:151-164.
Crossref

 
 

Adhikari K, Bahadur Rana H, Kaphle K, Khanal T, Raut R (2017). Prevalence of haemonchus contortus in goats of western chitwan of nepal. International Journal of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology 5(3):321-325.
Crossref

 
 

Adua MM, Hassan DI (2016). Prevalence of nematode infestation in goats reared in nasarawa state, nigeria Nigerian Journal of Agriculture, Food and Environment 12(3):79-84.

 
 

Akhtara M, Iqbal Z, Khan MN, Lateef M (2000). Anthelmintic activity of medicinal plants with particular reference to their use in animals in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. Small Ruminant Research 38(2):99-107.
Crossref

 
 

Alonso AM, Corvi MM, Diambra L (2019). Gene target discovery with network analysis in Toxoplasma gondii. Scientific Reports 9(1):1-14.
Crossref

 
 

Alowanou GG (2016). Utilization of Bridelia ferruginea Benth, Mitragyna inermis (willd.) Kuntze et Combretum glutinosum Perr. Ex dc., in the control of Haemonchus contortus in three genetic types of sheep in benin republic. PhD Thesis, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences (FSA), University of Abomey-Calavi (UAC).

 
 

Alowanou GG, Olounladé AP, Azando EVB, Dedehou VFGN, Daga FD, Hounzangbé-Adoté SM (2015). A review of Bridelia ferruginea, Combretum glutinosum and Mitragina inermis plants used in zootherapeutic remedies in west africa: Historical origins, current uses and implications. Journal of Applied Biosciences 87:8003-8014. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jab.v87i1.4
Crossref

 
 

Alruhaili MH (2015). Genetic diversity of African isolates of Toxoplasma gondii. PhD thesis, University of Salford, UK.

 
 

Andrea BDW, Davidson R, Conington J, Roughsedge T, Hutchings MR, Villanueva B (2011). Implications of host genetic variation on the risk and prevalence of infectious diseases transmitted through the environment. Genetics 188:683-693.
Crossref

 
 

aspects of pathophysiology and clinical implications. Ophthalmic Research 52(3):116-123.

 
 

Athanasiadou A, Githiori J, Kyriazakis I (2007). Medicinal plants for helminth parasite control: Facts and fiction. Animal 1(9):1392-1400.
Crossref

 
 

Attias M, Teixeira DE, Benchimol M, Vommaro RC, Crepaldi PH, De Souza W (2020). The life-cycle of Toxoplasma gondii reviewed using animations. Parasites and Vectors 13(1):1-13.
Crossref

 
 

Attindehou S, Salifou S, Biaou CF, Gbati OB, Adamou-N'diaye M, Pangui LJ (2012). Epidemiology of haemonchosis in sheep and goats in benin. Journal of Parasitology and Vector Biology 4(2):20-24. 10.5897/JPVB12.012

 
 

Aumont G, Gruner L, Hostache G (2003). Comparison of the resistance to sympatric allopatric isolates of haemonchus contortus of black belly sheep in guadeloups. Veterinary Parasitology 116(2):139-150.
Crossref

 
 

Ayi I, Edu S, Apea-Kubi KA, Boamah D, Bosompem KM, Edoh D (2010). Sero-epidemiology of toxoplasmosis amongst pregnant women in the greater Accra region of Ghana. Ghana Medical Journal 43(3).
Crossref

 
 

Baba M, Batanova T, Kitoh K, Takashima Y (2017). Adhesion of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoite-infected vehicle leukocytes to capillary endothelial cells triggers timely parasite egression. Scientific Reports 7(1):1-9.
Crossref

 
 

Bahhaj R, Ahmadpour E, Mahami-Oskouei M, Fallah E, Shamsasenjan K, Safaiyan A (2017). Toxoplasma gondii infection and related risk factors among blood donors in northwest Iran. Archives of Clinical Infectious Diseases 12(2):e62005.
Crossref

 
 

Bahia-Oliveira LMG, Jones JL, Azevedo-Silva J, Alves CC, Oréfice F, Addiss DG (2003). Highly endemic, waterborne toxoplasmosis in north Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil. Emerging Infectious Diseases 9(1):55.
Crossref

 
 

Ballweber LR (2004). Waterfowl parasites. Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine 13:197-205.
Crossref

 
 

Barker KF, Holliman RE (1992). Laboratory techniques in the investigation of toxoplasmosis. Genitourinary Medicine 68(1):55-59.
Crossref

 
 

Barnes EH, Dobson RJ, Stein PA, Lejambre LF (2001). Selection of different genotype larva and adult worms for anthelmintic resistance by persistent and short acting avermectin/ milberrycins. International Journal for Parasitology 31(7):720-727.
Crossref

 
 

Bartley DJ (2008). Anthelmintic resistance in sheep and goats. Proceedings of the sheep veterinary society Spring meeting, Darlington and Autumn meeting, Lancaster 32:79-83.

 
 

Barton NJ, Trainor BL, Urie JS, Atkins JW, Pymans MFS, Wolstencroft IR (1985). Anthelmintic resistance in nematode parasites of goats. Australian Veterinary Journal 62(7):224-227.
Crossref

 
 

Beran O, Kodym P, Maly M, Davidova A, Reinvartova G, Jilich D, Rozsypal H (2015).The effect of latent Toxoplasma gondii infection on the immune response in HIV-infected patients. Biomed Research International 2015:271842
Crossref

 
 

Besier B, Kahn LP, Sargison ND, Van Wyk J (2016). Diagnosis, treatment and management of haemonchus contortus in small ruminants. In Haemonchus contortus and haemonchosis-past, present and future trends 93:181-238.
Crossref

 
 

Bessieres MH, Berrebi A, Cassaing S, Fillaux J, Cambus JP, Berry A, Magnaval JF (2009). Diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis: prenatal and neonatal evaluation of methods used in Toulouse University Hospital and incidence of congenital toxoplasmosis. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 104(2):389-392.
Crossref

 
 

Bishop SC, Morris CA (2007). Genetics of disease resistance in sheep and goats. Small Ruminant Research 70(1):70:48-59.
Crossref

 
 

Black MW, Boothroyd JC (2000). Lytic cycle of Toxoplasma gondii. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 64(3):607-623.
Crossref

 
 

Blader IJ, Coleman BI, Chen CT, Gubbels MJ (2015). Lytic cycle of Toxoplasma gondii: 15 years later. Annual Review of Microbiology 69:463-485.
Crossref

 
 

Bogning ZC, Olounlade PA, Alowanou GG, Nguemfo EL, Dongmo AB, Azebaze AGB, S. H-A (2016). In vitro anthelmintic activity of aqueous extract of Crassocephalum crepidioides (benth.) s. Moore on Haemonchus contortus. Journal of Experimental and Integrative Medicine 6:1-7. 
Crossref

 
 

Bonfoh B, Zinsstag J, Ankers P, Pangui L, K KP (1995). Epidémiologie des nématodes gastro-intestinaux chez les petits ruminants dans la région des plateaux au togo. Revue d'Elevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux 48(4):321-326.

 
 

Bonhomme A, Bouchot A, Pezzella N, Gomez J, Le Moal H, Pinon JM (1999). Signaling during the invasion of host cells by Toxoplasma gondii. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 23(5):551-561.
Crossref

 
 

Botura MB, Silva GD, Lima HG, Oliveira JVA, Souza TS, Santos JDG, Branco A, Moreira ELT, Almeida MAO, Batatinha MJM (2011). In vivo anthelmintic activity of an aqueous extract from sisal waste (Agave sisalana perr.) against gastrointestinal nematodes in goats. Veterinary Parasitology 177(1-2):104-110.
Crossref

 
 

Boukhari MI, Elfadil AAM, Omer FA, Shuaib YA (2016). Prevalence and risk factors of Haemonchus contortus in sheep in khartoum state, the sudan. Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS). 9(2):77-83.

 
 

Brasil TR, Freire-de-Lima CG, Morrot A, Vetö Arnholdt AC (2017). Host-Toxoplasma gondii coadaptation leads to fine tuning of the immune response. Frontiers in Immunology 8:1080
Crossref

 
 

Bricarello PA, Amarante AFT, Rocha RA, Cabral Filho SL, Huntley JF,

 
 

Brightling T (2006). Livestock diseases in australia. CH Jerram. Science Publishers.

 
 

Brunet S (2008). Analyse des mécanismes d'action antiparasitaire de plantes riches en substances polyphénoliques sur les nématodes du tube digestifs des ruminants. Thèse de Doctorat, Université de Toulouse.

 
 

Burgdorf KS, Trabjerg BB, Pedersen MG, Nissen J, Banasik K, Pedersen OB, Ullum H (2019). Large-scale study of Toxoplasma and Cytomegalovirus shows an association between infection and serious psychiatric disorders. Brain, Behavior and Immunity 79:152-158.
Crossref

 
 

Burke JM, Wells A, Casey P, Kaplan RM (2009b). Herbal dewormer fails to control gastrointestinal nematodes in goats. Veterinary Parasitology 160(1-2):168-170.
Crossref

 
 

Burke JM, Wells A, Casey P, Miller JE (2009a). Garlic and papaya lack control over gastroin testinal nematodes in goats and lambs. Veterinary Parasitology 159(2):171-174.
Crossref

 
 

Bush AO, Fernandez JC, Esch GW, Seed JR (2001). Parasitism: The diversity and ecology of animal parasites. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

 
 

Caldas LA, de Souza W (2018). A window to Toxoplasma gondii egress. Pathogens 7(3):69.
Crossref

 
 

Can TV (2015). Effects of dietary protein supplementation and plane of nutrition on the resistance and the resilience of boer goats against artificial Haemonchus contortus infection under confined conditions. School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, p. 164.

 
 

Carey KL, Westwood NJ, Mitchison TJ, Ward GE (2004). A small-molecule approach to studying invasive mechanisms of Toxoplasma gondii. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 101(19):7433-7438.

 
 

Carneiro ACAV, Andrade GM, Costa JGL, Pinheiro BV, Vasconcelos-Santos DV, Ferreira AM, Vitor RWA (2013). Genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii revealed highly diverse genotypes for isolates from newborns with congenital toxoplasmosis in southeastern Brazil. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 51(3):901-907.
Crossref

 
 

Chaichan P, Mercier A, Galal L, Mahittikorn A, Ariey F, Morand S, Dardé ML(2017). Geographical distribution of Toxoplasma gondii genotypes in Asia: A link with neighboring continents. Infection, Genetics and Evolution 53:227-238.
Crossref

 
 

Chandra S, Prasad A, Yadav N, Latchumikanthan A, Rakesh RL, Praveen K, Khobra V, Subramani KV, Misri L, Sankar M (2015). Status of benzimidazole resistance in Haemonchus contortus of goats from different geographic regions of Uttar Pradesh, India. Veterinary Parasitology 208:26-37.
Crossref

 
 

characterization of Toxoplasma gondii macrophage migration inhibitory factor. Journal of Biological Chemistry 288(18):12733-12741.
Crossref

 
 

Chartier C, Etter E, Hoste H, Pors I, Mallereau M, Broqua C (2000). Effects of the initial level of milk production and of the dietary protein intake on the course of natural nematode infection in dairy goats. Veterinary Parasitology 92(1):1-13. 
Crossref

 
 

Chaudary FR, Khan MFU, Qayyum M (2007). Prevalence of Haemonchus contortus in naturally infected small ruminants grazing in the Potohar area of Pakistan. Pakistan Veterinary Journal 27(2):73-79.

 
 

Cheng W, Wang C, Xu T, Liu F, Pappoe F, Luo Q, Shen J (2017). Genotyping of polymorphic effectors of Toxoplasma gondii isolates from China. Parasites and Vectors 10(1):1-8.
Crossref

 
 

Colditz IG (2003). Metabolic effects of immune activation during gastrointestinal parasitism in sheep. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 43:1437-43.
Crossref

 
 

Colli CM, Rubinsky-Elefant G, Paludo ML, Falavigna DL, Guilherme E V, Mattia S, Falavigna-Guilherme AL (2010). Serological, clinical and epidemiological evaluation of toxocariasis in urban areas of south Brazil. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao Paulo 52(2):69-74.
Crossref

 
 

Coop RL, Kyriazakis I (1999). Nutrition-parasite interaction. Veterinary Parasitology 84(3-4):187-204.
Crossref

 
 

Coop RL, Kyriazakis I (2001). Influence of host nutrition on the development and consequences of nematode parasitism in ruminants. Trends in Parasitology 17:325-30.
Crossref

 
 

Corcino YL, Portillo JAC, Subauste CS (2019). Epidermal growth factor receptor promotes cerebral and retinal invasion by Toxoplasma gondii. Scientific Reports 9(1):1-12.
Crossref

 
 

Cotter JL, Burgel AV, Besier RB (2015). Anthelmintic resistance in nematodes of beef cattle in southwest western australia. Veterinary Parasitology 207(3-4):276-284.
Crossref

 
 

Coyne MJ, Smith G (1992). The development and mortality of the free-living stages of Haemonchus contortus in laboratory culture. International Journal of Parasitology 22(5):641-650.
Crossref

 
 

Daher W, Plattner F, Carlier MF, Soldati-Favre D (2010). Concerted action of two formins in gliding motility and host cell invasion by Toxoplasma gondii. PLoS Pathogens 6(10):e1001132.
Crossref

 
 

Dard C, Fricker-Hidalgo H, Brenier-Pinchart MP, Pelloux H (2016). Relevance of and new developments in serology for toxoplasmosis. Trends in Parasitology 32(6):492-506.
Crossref

 
 

Dardé ML (2008). Toxoplasma gondii, "new" genotypes and virulence. Parasite 15(3):366-371.
Crossref

 
 

Dedehou NVFG, Awohouedji DYG, Hounzangbe-Adote S, Gangbo F (2015). Effects of administration of Pterocarpus erinaceus leaf powders and Parkia biglobosa fruit pods on Haemonchus contourus-parallel djallonke ovins. Journal de la Société de Biologie Clinique du Bénin 2015:20-26.

 
 

Deng H, Devleesschauwer B, Liu M, Li J, Wu Y, van der Giessen JW, Opsteegh M (2018). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in pregnant women and livestock in the mainland of China: a systematic review and hierarchical meta-analysis. Scientific Reports 8(1):1-10.
Crossref

 
   

 

Karch CP, Burkhard P (2016). Vaccine technologies: from whole organisms to rationally designed protein assemblies. Biochemical Pharmacology 120:1-14.
Crossref

 

Khalili M, Mahami-Oskouei M, Shahbazi A, Safaiyan A, Mohammadzadeh-Gheshlaghi N, Mahami-Oskouei L (2018). The correlation between serum levels of anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies and the risk of diabetes. Iranian Journal of Parasitology 13(4):637.

 
 

Khan IA Smith KA, Kasper LH (1990). Induction of antigen-specific human cytotoxic T cells by Toxoplasma gondii. Journal of Clinical Investigation 85(6):1879-1886.
Crossref

 
 

Khattab HM, El Bassiouni SO, Abuelela MH, Abd Elsalam DO (2019). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii among a group of Egyptian patients with type I diabetes mellitus. Bulletin of the National Research Centre 43(1):1-7.
Crossref

 
 

Kim JY, Ahn MH, Jun HS, Jung JW, Ryu JS, Min DY (2006). Toxoplasma gondii inhibits apoptosis in infected cells by caspase inactivation and NF-κB activation. Yonsei Medical Journal 47(6):862.
Crossref

 
 

Kollu V, Magalhaes-Silverman M, Tricot G, Ince D (2018). Toxoplasma encephalitis following tandem autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: a case report and review of the literature. Case Reports in Infectious Diseases 2018:9409121.
Crossref

 
 

Krishnamurthy S, Konstantinou EK, Young LH, Gold DA, Saeij JP 2017). The human immune response to Toxoplasma: autophagy versus cell death. PLoS Pathogens 13(3):e1006176.
Crossref

 
 

Laing C, Blanchard N,McConkey GA (2020).Noradrenergic signaling and neuroinflammation crosstalk regulate Toxoplasma gondii-induced behavioral changes. Trends in Immunology 41(12):1072-1082.
Crossref

 
 

Lee S-B, Lee T-G (2017). Toxoplasmic encephalitis in patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Brain Tumor Research and Treatment 5(1):34-36.
Crossref

 
 

Li YX, Xin H, Zhang XY, Wei CY, Duan YH, Wang HF, Niu HT (2018). Toxoplasma gondii infection in diabetes mellitus patients in China: seroprevalence, risk factors, and case-control studies. BioMed Research International 2018:4723739.
Crossref

 
 

Liu Q, Wang ZD, Huang SY, Zhu XQ (2015). Diagnosis of toxoplasmosis and typing of Toxoplasma gondii. Parasites and Vectors 8:292.
Crossref

 
 

Liu Y, Cao A, Li Y, Li X, Cong H, He S, Zhou H (2017). Immunization with a DNA vaccine encoding Toxoplasma gondii Superoxide dismutase (TgSOD) induces partial immune protection against acute toxoplasmosis in BALB/c mice. BMC Infectious Diseases 17(1):403.
Crossref

 
 

Luma HN, Tchaleu BC, Mapoure YN, Temfack E, Doualla MS, Halle MP, Joko HA, Koulla-Shiro S (2013). Toxoplasma encephalitis in HIV/AIDS patients admitted to the Douala general hospital between 2004 and 2009: a cross sectional study. BMC Research Notes 6:146.
Crossref

 
 

Majidiani H, Dalvand S, Daryani A, Galvan-Ramirez MDLL, Foroutan-Rad M (2016). Is chronic toxoplasmosis a risk factor for diabetes mellitus? A systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control studies. Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases 20(6):605-609.
Crossref

 
 

Maldonado YA, Read JS (2017) Committee on Infectious Diseases. Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of congenital toxoplasmosis in the United States. Pediatrics 139(2).
Crossref

 
 

Mammari N, Halabi MA, Yaacoub S, Chlala H, Dardé ML, Courtioux B (2019). Toxoplasma gondii modulates the host cell responses: an overview of apoptosis pathways. BioMed Research International, 2019:6152489.
Crossref

 
 

McConkey GA, Martin HL, Bristow GC, Webster JP (2013).Toxoplasma gondii infection and behaviour-location, location, location?. Journal of Experimental Biology 216(1):113-119.
Crossref

 
 

McFarland MM, Bartlett M, Davis P (2016). Toxoplasmic encephalitis. In: Encephalitis. Avid Science: Telangana pp. 2-52.

 
 

Menard KL, Haskins BE, Colombo AP,Denkers EY (2018). Toxoplasma gondii manipulates expression of host long noncoding RNA during intracellular infection. Scientific reports 8(1):1-14.
Crossref

 
 

Mohamed K, Ahmed AA, Elrayah IE (2013). Prevalence and risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans from Khartoum State, Sudan. International Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology 2(3):60-66.

 
 

Mohraz M, Mehrkhani F, Jam S, SeyedAlinaghi SA, Sabzvari D, Fattahi F, Hajiabdolbaghi M (2011). Seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in HIV+/AIDS patients in Iran. Acta Medica Iranica 49(4):213-218.

 
 

Montoya JG (2002). Laboratory diagnosis of Toxoplasma gondii infection and toxoplasmosis. Journal of Infectious Diseases 185 (Suppl. 1):S73-S82.
Crossref

 
 

Morris MI, Fischer SA, Ison MG (2010). Infections transmitted by transplantation. Infectious Disease Clinics 24(2):497-514.
Crossref

 
 

Morrison DA, Höglund J (2005). Testing the hypothesis of recent population expansions in nematode parasites of human-associated hosts. Heredity 94(4):426-434.
Crossref

 
 

Muluye D, Wondimeneh Y, Belyhun Y, Moges F, Endris M, Ferede G, ... Negese D (2013). Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and associated risk factors among people living with HIV at Gondar University Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia. International Scholarly Research Notices, 2013:123858.
Crossref

 
 

Ngô HM, Zhou Y, Lorenzi H, Wang K, Kim TK, Zhou Y, McLeod R (2017). Toxoplasma modulates signature pathways of human epilepsy, neurodegeneration and cancer. Scientific Reports 7(1):1-32.
Crossref

 
 

Patel R, Paya CV (1997). Infections in solid-organ transplant recipients. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 10(1):86-124.
Crossref

 
 

Pena HFJ, Vitaliano SN, Beltrame MAV, Pereira FEL, Gennari SM, Soares RM (2013). PCR-RFLP genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii from chickens from Espirito Santo state, Southeast region, Brazil: new genotypes and a new SAG3 marker allele. Veterinary Parasitology 192(3):111-117.
Crossref

 
 

Petit?Jentreau L, Glover C, Coombes JL (2018). Parasitized Natural Killer cells do not facilitate the spread of Toxoplasma gondii to the brain. Parasite Immunology 40(4):e12522.
Crossref

 
 

Pierog PL, Zhao Y, Singh S, Dai J, Yap GS,Fitzgerald-Bocarsly P (2018).Toxoplasma gondii inactivates human plasmacytoid dendritic cells by functional mimicry of IL-10. Journal of Immunology 200(1):186-195.
Crossref

 
 

Pinzan CF, Sardinha-Silva A, Almeida F, Lai L, Lopes CD, Lourenço EV, Roque-Barreira MC (2015). Vaccination with recombinant microneme proteins confers protection against experimental toxoplasmosis in mice. PloS One 10(11):e0143087.
Crossref

 
 

Pleyer U, Schlüter D, Mänz M (2014). Ocular toxoplasmosis: recent aspects of pathophysiology and clinical implications. Ophthalmic Research 52(3):116-123.
Crossref

 
 

Pollard AM , Knoll LJ, Mordue DG (2009). The role of specific Toxoplasma gondii molecules in manipulation of innate immunity. Trends in Parasitology 25(11):491-494.
Crossref

 
 

Rajapakse S, Weeratunga P, Rodrigo C, de Silva NL, Fernando SD (2017). Prophylaxis of human toxoplasmosis: a systematic review. Pathogens and Global Health 111(7):333-342.
Crossref

 
 

Randall LM, Hunter CA (2011). Parasite dissemination and the pathogenesis of toxoplasmosis. European Journal of Microbiology and Immunology 1(1):3-9.
Crossref

 
 

Rasti S, Behrashi M, Kazemi B, Fatahian A, Mousavi G, Namakchian M (2012). Diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis by polymerase chain reaction. Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology 30(2):251.
Crossref

 
 

Robert-Gangneux F, Dardé M-L (2012). Epidemiology of and diagnostic strategies for toxoplasmosis. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 25(2):264-296.
Crossref

 
 

Roberts F, Mets MB, Ferguson DJ, O'Grady R, O'Grady C, Thulliez P, McLeod R (2001). Histopathological features of ocular toxoplasmosis in the fetus and infant. Archives of Ophthalmology 119(1): 51-58.

 
 

Rothova A (2003). Ocular manifestations of toxoplasmosis.Current Opinion in Ophthalmology 14(6):384-388.
Crossref

 
 

Saki J, Mohammadpour N, Moramezi F, Khademvatan S (2015). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in women who have aborted in comparison with the women with normal delivery in Ahvaz, southwest of Iran. The Scientific World Journal 2015:764369.
Crossref

 
 

Sander V, Angel SO,Clemente M (2018). A comprehensive review of Toxoplasma gondii biology and host-cell interaction: challenges for a plant-based vaccine. Prospects of Plant-Based Vaccines in Veterinary Medicine pp. 89-120.
Crossref

 
 

Sasai M, Pradipta A, Yamamoto M (2018). Host immune responses to Toxoplasma gondii. International Immunology 30(3):113-119.
Crossref

 
 

Schaefer JJ, White HA, Schaaf SL, Mohammed HO,Wade SE (2012). Chimeric protein A/G conjugate for detection of anti-Toxoplasma gondii immunoglobulin G in multiple animal species. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 24(3):572-575.
Crossref

 
 

Schlüter D, Barragan A (2019). Advances and challenges in understanding cerebral toxoplasmosis. Frontiers in Immunology 10:242.
Crossref

 
 

Schwartz BS (2013). Parasitic infections in solid organ transplantation. American Journal of Transplantation 13(Suppl. 4):280-303.
Crossref

 
 

Serranti D, Buonsenso D, Valentini P (2011). Congenital toxoplasmosis treatment. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences 15(2):193-198.

 
 

Sher A, Tosh K, Jankovic D (2017). Innate recognition of Toxoplasma gondii in humans involves a mechanism distinct from that utilized by rodents. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 14(1):36-42.
Crossref

 
 

Shimokawa PT, Targa LS, Yamamoto L, Rodrigues JC, Kanunfre KA, Okay TS (2016). HLA-DQA1/B1 alleles as putative susceptibility markers in congenital toxoplasmosis. Virulence 7(4):456-464.
Crossref

 
 

Shwab EK, Saraf P, Zhu XQ, Zhou DH, McFerrin BM, Ajzenberg DSuC. (2018). Human impact on the diversity and virulence of the ubiquitous zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 115(29):E6956-E6963.
Crossref

 
 

Soares JAS, Caldeira AP (2019). Congenital toxoplasmosis: the challenge of early diagnosis of a complex and neglected disease. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical 52:e20180228.
Crossref

 
 

Sommerville C, Richardson JM, Williams RA, Mottram JC, Roberts C W, Alexander J, Henriquez FL (2013). Biochemical and immunological

 
 

characterization of Toxoplasma gondii macrophage migration inhibitory factor. Journal of Biological Chemistry 288(18):12733-12741.
Crossref

 
 

Sutterland AL, Fond G, Kuin A, Koeter MWJ, Lutter R, Van Gool T, De Haan L (2015). Beyond the association. Toxoplasma gondii in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and addiction: systematic review and meta?analysis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 132(3):161-179.
Crossref

 
 

Szabo EK, Finney CAM (2017). Toxoplasma gondii: one organism, multiple models. Trends in Parasitology 33(2):113-127.
Crossref

 
 

Takemae H, Sugi T, Kobayashi K, Gong H, Ishiwa A, Recuenco FC, Kato K (2013). Characterization of the interaction between Toxoplasma gondii rhoptry neck protein 4 and host cellular β-tubulin. Scientific Reports 3(1):1-9.
Crossref

 
 

Tenter AM (2009). Toxoplasma gondii in animals used for human consumption. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 104(2):364-369.
Crossref

 
 

Tosh KW, Mittereder L, Bonne-Annee S, Hieny S, Nutman TB, Singer S M, Jankovic D (2016). The IL-12 response of primary human dendritic cells and monocytes to Toxoplasma gondii is stimulated by phagocytosis of live parasites rather than host cell invasion. Journal of Immunology 196(1):345-356.
Crossref

 
 

University of Guelph Centre for Public Health and Zoonoses (2009). Toxoplasma for Public Health Personnel.

View

 
 

Wallon M, Peyron F (2018). Congenital toxoplasmosis: a plea for a neglected disease. Pathogens 7(1):25.
Crossref

 
 

Wang D, Liu Y, Jiang T, Zhang G, Yuan G, He J, Yang N (2016). Seroprevalence and genotypes of Toxoplasma gondii isolated from pigs intended for human consumption in Liaoning province, northeastern China. Parasites and Vectors 9(1):1-5.
Crossref

 
 

Wang T, Yin H, Li Y, Zhao L, Sun X, Cong H (2017). Vaccination with recombinant adenovirus expressing multi-stage antigens of Toxoplasma gondii by the mucosal route induces higher systemic cellular and local mucosal immune responses than with other vaccination routes. Parasite 24:12.
Crossref

 
 

Weiss LM, Kim K (2000). The development and biology of bradyzoites of Toxoplasma gondii. Frontiers in Bioscience 5:D391-405.
Crossref

 
 

Weiss LM, Dubey JP (2009). Toxoplasmosis: a history of clinical observations. International Journal for Parasitology 39(8):895-901.
Crossref

 
 

White SL, Rawlinson W, Boan P, Sheppeard V, Wong G, Waller K, Ison M (2018). Infectious disease transmission in solid organ transplantation: donor evaluation, recipient risk, and outcomes of transmission. Transplantation Direct 5(1).
Crossref

 
 

World Health Organization (WHO) (2015). Toxoplasmosis Fact Sheet. World Health Organization: Geneva.

View

 
 

Wilking H, Thamm M, Stark K, Aebischer T, Seeber F (2016). Prevalence, incidence estimations and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection in Germany: a representative, cross-sectional, serological study. Scientific Reports 6(1):1-9.
Crossref

 
 

Yamamoto JH, Lima Vallochi A, Silveira C, Kalil Filho J, Nussenblatt RB, Cunha-Neto E, Vicente Rizzo L (2000). Discrimination between patients with acquired toxoplasmosis and congenital toxoplasmosis on the basis of the immune response to parasite antigens. Journal of Infectious Diseases 181(6):2018-2022.
Crossref

 
 

Y?ld?z Ç Akkar OB, Karaku? S, Cetin A (2015). Congenital toxoplasmosis. Basic and Clinical Sciences 1:62-69.

 
 

Zhang NZ, Chen J, Wang M, Petersen E, Zhu XQ (2013). Vaccines against Toxoplasma gondii: new developments and perspectives. Expert Review of Vaccines 12(11):1287-1299.
Crossref

 
 

Zhang Z, Li Y, Wang M, Xie Q, Li P, Zuo S, Wang S (2018). Immune protection of rhoptry protein 21 (ROP21) of Toxoplasma gondii as a DNA vaccine against toxoplasmosis. Frontiers in Microbiology 9: 909.
Crossref

 
 

Zhang Z, Li Y, Xie Q, Li P, Nan X, Kong L, Wang S (2019). The molecular characterization and immunity identification of rhoptry protein 22 of Toxoplasma gondii as a DNA vaccine candidate against toxoplasmosis. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 66(1):147-157.
Crossref