Management practice in Ethiopia is basically traditional and the pastoralist under this management only practiced extensive range camel production system and there is no improved forage production for meat, milk and draft purpose (Eyasu, 2009; Yosef et al., 2014b; Yohannes et al., 2015). The unfair distribution of responsibility and gender inequality is seen in camel management practice. The management is exclusively the responsibility of men and son in the pastoral areas of Ethiopia with very little participation  of  women  (Simenew  et al., 2013). Women are not allowed herding camels since it is a difficult duty and camels browse until night time, if women keep camels which will cause a risk (Yohannes et al., 2015).

The camel's major role to food security in semi dry and dry zones and its being main part of the agro-pastoral systems in vast pastoral areas in Africa and Asia, but little is known about its production potential and production systems compared to other domestic animals. The production potential of the camel has received lamentably little attention and underestimated due to different reason (Yohannes et al., 2007; Simenew et al., 2013). The main one includes meat and milk is yet mainly intended for substance farming and availability of less attention by researchers and accessibility of few references. Therefore, the objective of this review paper is to assess the potential of camel production and management practices in Ethiopia.

Potential of camel milk production

 

Camel milk comprises different products like whole milk, cheese, butter and ghee. In pastoral areas of Ethiopia, camel milk is utilized in the form of whole milk. Camel milk is essential diets for family in an area that may correctly term as arid and semi-arid areas. The annual camel milk production in Ethiopia is estimated to be 176113 tones (FAO, 2018) (Figure 1). Data on the actual amount of milk produced by camel is not exact for jugging the milk yielding potential in Ethiopian. Average daily milk production estimates for Somalia camel ranges from 1-12kg of milk. Whereas daily milk yields for afar camel is between 2-12 kg. Estimates of average daily milk yield of camels in different regions of Ethiopia range between 1 and 12 (Table 1). Different study reports indicate that camel milk yield greatly vary from place to place and region to region. The variation in production mainly depends on the breed of camel, its age, lactation length, seasonal fluctuation and availability of feed and water (Farah et al., 2004). Daily yield of camel milk may vary with seasonal fluctuation and production system applied in area. The highest milk yield is obtained during rainy season regardless of production system (Tekle and Tesfaye, 2013). This might be due to nutritional status of the feed during the wet season, where feeds are an abundance of many types of vegetation and rich in nutrients (Hamed et al., 2017). The camel produced adequate amount of milk during supplementary feed consumption (Moges et al., 2016). Milk yield is affected by stage of lactation length and production system. The yield of milk decreases when the phase of lactation grows longer. The highest milk yield is obtained from camels at first three months of lactation and lower milk  yield  is found at late lactation (Wafa and Ibtisam, 2014).Yohaness et al. (2007) indicates that better milk yield for early and mid-stage of lactation than late stage of lactation. Higher daily milk is gained for camels in late stage of lactation kept under pastoral production system compared to their contemporaries kept under agro-pastoral management (Tekle and Tesfaye, 2013). Bakheit et al. (2008) described that camel kept under semi-intensive management were able to produce better milk than kept under traditional system.

Lactation lengths in different studies of Ethiopian camels vary widely. Lactation length shortened when producers have plenty of feed for the calf. Lactation length extended to prevent pregnancy and then to carry on to continue milk production for household consumption as well as to safeguard the camel calf (Yohannes et al., 2007) and if extent of demand for milk by the owner advanced than ever and there is better feed availability for the animal (Simenew et al., 2013). Camel milking frequency may vary from pastoralist to pastoralist and it mainly depends on quality of milk produced per camel, pastoralist demand for milk, season and amount of milking camel present in the herd, availability of alternative food for the camel owner, age of animal and health of calves.

The trend of camel milk yield and camel head in Ethiopia from 1993-2018 shows there is inconstancy milk production and camel population per year.  Milk yield and camel population gradual increase from 1993-2000 and they show sharp increment from 2000-2004 and sharp decrement 2005-2006. Wako et al. (2017) confirmed that the impacts of climate change in 2005 and 2006 in relation of frequent drought occurrences change in status of natural resources, and change in the ecology of vegetations dynamics and composition in rangeland, disease occurrences in Ethiopia. Similarly in 2018 milk production decreased 1.97% as compared with 2016. The fluctuation in milk production attributed by frequent drought occurrences in a year and lack of adequate feed accesses.

With 176113 tons of milk in 2018, Ethiopia was third among other countries in camel milk production. The country is overtaken by Somalia and Kenya which were number one and two with 958,079 and 854,669 and is followed by Niger and Sudan at 105,967 and 61,000. Somalia leads the ranking with  958,079 tons  in  2018,  a growth of 0.25 compared to 2016. Tunisia produces the lowest milk as compared to Somalia, Kenya and Ethiopia.

Potential of camel meat production

The estimate of camel meat production represents about 1.91% of Ethiopia meat production (CSA, 2017) but information is quite difficult to collect as main part of the camel meat data comes from the informal market. The total meat consumption indicates an uptrend owing to increasing income and population (AACCSA, 2015). The increase in number of camels slaughtered at Dire Dawa abattoir in 2015 by 63.54% compared to 2014 slaughtered may also be due to the supply of more camels to local market that increased the slaughter volume of the abattoir. The increase trend in camel meat consumption of 78288 kg in 2012 to 230763 in 2015 and the increase in meat consumers linked to an increase in human population (Mohammed et al., 2017) (Tables 2 and 3).

Meat production potential varied from production system, age, sex and body weight of animals (Faraz et al., 2018).  Difference body weight might explain the variation in meat production potential (Tekle and Tesfaye, 2013). In the camel herd, sources of meat include young/ old males and unproductive female. The camels slaughtered at the abattoir areapproximately at fully developed age categories (Mitiku and Getachew, 2015). The camels slaughtered in the Jijiga and Dire Dawaabattoir variedfrom age and body condition. Young camels’ meat highly preferred because of its leanness, tenderness, juiciness fast cooking (Kadim et al., 2014; Mohammed et al., 2017). Quality of meat from young camels known to be comparable to beef (Mahgoub and Kadim, 2012). The age and body conditions of camel had a significant effect on the proportion of carcass components. Camels aged 6-10 years produce a higher proportion of muscle and bone than camels aged greater than 11 years but camels aged over 18 year produce better amount of fat. Higher proportions of muscle and bone got from deprived camels and medium body condition groups than camels with a good body condition group (Ali et al., 2017). Meat production potential varied from production system to production system. Camels in agro- pastoral system have improved meat production potential than in pastoral production system (Tekle and Tesfaye, 2013). Meat production associated withright herd management in terms of choice animals to be slaughtered (Mohammed et al., 2017). According to Melkamu and Fesseha (2001), nearly 90% of male camels slaughtered from eastern Ethiopia and rest are unproductive females. Camels produced high carcass yield (Mohammed et al., 2017). The meat yield of the camel and its taste determined by different factors like; age, sex, feeding condition and general health of the animal. Sex has a significant influence over dressing percentage, males are having dressing percentage than female (Abebe et al., 2002).

Mostly camel- producing communities’ livelihood attached to a camel, and never slaughtered a camel for home consumption of meat unless compelled by circumstances (Farah et al., 2004). Pastoralist consume camel meat during festive and cultural obligation such as person died from family members and accidental injured but they consume when they available (Yohannes et al., 2007; Eyasu, 2009; Mohammed et al., 2017). Moreover, meat from camel is the main source mostly in areas where the climate adversely affects the performance of other meat from other animal species (Kurtu, 2004).

Camel meat is one of the least studied type of meat and believed to be lower nutritive value (Abdelhadi et al., 2013).The overall preference to meat types showed camel meat ranked first and more preferred to chevon in Shinile district but opposite was the case in Dire Dawa. In terms of meat attributes, camel meat is the least preferred for tenderness but it has got better preference for flavor and juiciness (Mohammed et al., 2017). Camel meat preserved for prolonged period maintaining of shelf life by using the traditional method of meat preservation. More than half of the respondents in Babile showed they can maintain the shelf life of the meat as long as five years (Yohannes et al., 2007).

Draught power

Camels expend between 17 to 22% of body weight for draft power (Patil and Gupta, 2012). Typically, male camels used for packing animals. Transport of people, goods and mobile houses of the pastoralists during their seasonal migration in explore of feed and water for their animals is an important contribution rendered by dromedary camels (Yohannes et al., 2007; Eyasu, 2009).Yacob and Andy (2011) reported that, afar and Issa camels can meet the physical strength necessary to carriage salt block from Berahle to the uplands. In view of lack of roads and transportation facilities and the inaccessible terrain in most pastoral areas, the role of the camel as a pack animal is crucial and determines the survival of the nomads in the hostile environments of the desert. The pastoralist often considers camel as “ship of desert” in Somalia regional state (Eyasu, 2009). According to Yohannes et al. (2007) camel can plough 0.5 ha of land per day and it shows camel has greater power for ploughing a land.

Camel management practices

It could broadly classify the camel’s husbandry in different parts world as traditional nomadic management system and transhumant, sedentary, semi-intensive and intensive management system (Faraz et al., 2021b). In Ethiopia semi-intensive and intensive management practice not practiced for camel production as compared to other animals. There is no improvement in housing, feeding and watering to advance production system. Management practice in Ethiopia is basically traditional and they house camels in open camp around their home during night and herded during day time in communal grazing land (Shishay and Mulugeta, 2018). Yohannes et al. (2015) revealed that camels reared under an extensive management system are browse and graze together with other species of animals. Pastoralists managed young animals in the traditional way (Awoke et al., 2015). Husbands and sons are responsible members of the families to manage camels in the Afar society (Simenew et al., 2013; Yohannes et al., 2015).The management by female members of the families includes gathering cut-and carry forages and hauling water for relatively immobile young calves, which are kept in near the family hut (Awoke et al., 2015). Proper management has significant roles in the long-term improvement of camel reproduction and productivity (Fazal et al., 2017).

Camel holding

It indicates an average number of camels’ population per house (Table 3). Difference existed among different camel-keeping societies in Ethiopia in the number of camel owned per household. There seems inconsistence according reported results on trend of camel herd size per households. Decreasing of camel population per household have seen in Ethiopia in 2014 as compared to 2011 (FAO, 2018) and they may be attributed to inconsistence in sample size of study, scarcity of feed and impact of climate change. Among the total number of camels owned by a household, the number of female camels far exceeds that of male camels (Eyasu, 2009; Dejene, 2017; Shishay and Mulugeta, 2018). They mainly used male camels as a pack animal. According to Simenew et al. (2013) found the ratio of male to female in breeding herd to be1:30 but might be going up to 1:50, where the male is in his peak rutting vigor and in a good season of the year. From total camel herd size female and calves contributes 78-83%.The preference for more female than male is to ensure good supply of milk and reproductive potential. The primary reason for pastoralists owning a greater number of females in the herd is to ensure year-long milk production irrespective of season and to guarantee a stable recovery and continuity of camel in the community (Yosef et al., 2014b) (Tables 4 and 5).

Feeding system

Individual stock ownership, communal use of open areas and seasonal migration of herds and households characterizes traditional pastoral livestock production in Ethiopia. Camel can consume poor nutritional value plant that other animal species refuse. Camels in Jijiga and Shinile areas feed only on unimproved perennial natural vegetation of low nutritive value and they are not given supplementary feed (Eyasu, 2009). Similarly, majority of Asayita and Awash pastoralist do not grow fodder and depend on native browses and have no time to grow fodder since they practice nomadism (Solomon et al., 2017). Mille and Amibara districts reared male camels separately except during breeding season while in Shinille, both sexes reared and browse together except during dry season.  During  the  dry  season  both  female and male camels are not feed together, female camel shift to areas of better feed availability and male camel kept around settlement area for transportation goods (Yosef et al., 2014b). The main camels feed are trees or bushes, but they also graze grasses when browsing tree are not available. Camels optionally utilized wet season herb and grass since they are least preferred compared with browse trees and shrubs (Yohannes et al., 2015; Aklilu et al., 2019). In Raya Azebo districts the majority of camels reared on range lands moving from one place to another without limitations and minority fed on purchased feed (Yohannes et al., 2015). Afar pastoral people migrate mostly in the dry season to search for pasture, water and to prevent their animals from diseases occurring during those dry seasons in the area. Very rare migration occurred during the rainy season to high land areas because of the Awash River flooding problem (Simenew et al., 2013). Besides to selective feeding characteristics of camel, the use of feeds like herbaceous and grass as camel feed is not exercised yet (Aklilu et al., 2019).

Breeding practice

Various camel population exist in Ethiopia, they possess different trait of interest for which they preferred from the pastoralists for breeding objectives are too scant. Some of the studies indicated the breeding objectives of pastoralist in Afar and Somalia community highly consider milk production as trait of preference followed adaptability, breeding efficiency, growth, ability to give birth to more female and draught capacity (Yosef et al., 2014b) and proportion of male camels they rear in the herd (Megersa et al., 2008). Pastoralists selects bulls at different age groups, selection of the bull is applied at maturity in afar except Shinille and early communities. In Afar community selection of breeding bull is practiced from their own herds because male family member inherits every camel husbandry practice from their ancestors and they try to maintain the previous breeding practices (Kurtu, 2004). Breeding bulls are culled from breeding at an average age of 16±4years in Jijiga zone of Somalia region. Male camels not selected for breeding purpose are culled by selling or castration, assigning it baggage duties and complete separation from the female herd (Simenew et al., 2013; Awoke et al., 2015). The culling practice used by pastoralist varies from districts to district. Pastoralist in Jijiga and Babile districts cull bull from their herd by doing castration while Gursum district sold out the male or converted them into baggage animals (Awoke et al., 2015). Castration of male camels is one of culling method practiced by pastoralists in some part of Somalia regional state because of the demand for large size and good meat formation for export market than other breeds in region.  Pastoralists castrate camels to prevent unwanted mating with  poor  performing  males and inbreeding of camels. Although the major aim of castration is to prevent breeding by inferior male, it also helps ease of handling and better fattening for sale (Yosef et al., 2014b).Camel breeding starts at the beginning of the rainy seasons (main and short) and continues throughout the season (Simenew et al., 2013). In domestic breeding herds, usually one male is kept for many females. There is a strict hierarchical dominance relationship between males, established by competition during the mating season (Simenew et al., 2013; Awoke et al., 2015). In afar area majority of breeding herd, usually one male is kept for many female and also, almost all pastoralists in Shinille and majority of Jijiga and Moyale districts keep 2-4 breeding male camels in the herd (Yosef et al., 2014b)

 

Health management

Health management is critical in controlling mortality and improves production, productivity of camel. In comparison, camels have the potential to resist many diseases than other livestock species. However, still camels are susceptible to wide range of disease for which the main cause is infection with pathogenic viruses or bacteria, infestation with parasites (Jabir et al., 2017). Disease incidence is also reported as principal constraint of camel production in the pastoralist areas of Ethiopia (Simenew et al., 2013; Yosef et al., 2014b; Awoke et al., 2015; Yohannes et al., 2015; Dejene, 2017). Similarly, high incidence of parasitic as well as infectious diseases in camel herds is reported as serious concern. In addition to disease problem for the pastoralist, lack veterinary services, lack of governmental or private drug store and lack of professional support toward improvement of production and productivity of their camel (Simenew et al., 2013; Dejene, 2017).Repeated improper application of antibiotic treatment is highly practiced by the pastoralists themselves for any type of health problems of all their livestock species and this might lead to drug resistance to the common antibiotics (Simenew et al., 2013). Disease is the main factor influencing camel milk production in pastoral areas of afar (Solomon, 2017).

Housing system

Mostly camel housing system in Ethiopia categorized as in to two main classes; named as open and closed housing system, which are mainly depends on; age category of the animals, living environment, locally available materials, settlement of the owners, exposure to predators and so forth. Mature camels are housed in the fence around their home during night and herded during day time on communal grazing lands and also, camel calves are housed in (Gesso) local name of enclosure made for the purpose of keeping  calves  separately from rest of the herd, Gesso is constructed with wood (keselto) and fencing by available piece of thorn wood (Prosopis juliflora) and different bush plants in and around north-east parts of Ethiopia (Shishay and Mulugeta, 2018). Almost all the camel breeders kept their animals in traditional kraal made up of thorny bushes to protect the animals from some predatorin Sothern parts of Ethiopia (Dejene, 2017).

The type of camel that existed in Ethiopia is camel dromedaries (one humped camels). The majority of camels in the country are found in the dry areas of the eastern part of the country that is, Afar region, Somalia region and eastern part of Oromia region. Camel production is highly associated with the availability and quality feed resource in all seasons. The production is mainly for subsistence but surplus animals are sold. They are exclusively produced under traditional system on poor levels of nutrition and mostly slaughtered at older age after career in work or milk production. The camels slaughtered in the abattoir and backyards are heterogeneous in age and body condition.  The rate and level of camel milk production potential determine by species, breed, feed, environment and many other management practices Pastoral camel production has the potential of yielding positive impact on socioeconomic, environmental and gender related aspects. Pastoralists have been rearing different camel heard structures whose proportions vary from categories to other. Among the total number of camels housed, female camels have numerical dominance over male camels. Selection and culling of female camel is not done in all pastoral community. The feed and water scarcity, prevalence of disease and housing are main constraints of camel production and productivity in pastoral areas of the country. Therefore, further research and investigations should be conducted to identify and alleviate existing constraints related with camel production and management practices; stakeholders must have made clear intervention by designing different strategies and techniques to modernize camel production and management practices in the country.

The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.

The authors extend their appreciation to all staff members of Journal of Dryland Agriculture (JODA) and reviewers for their kind encouragement and comments.