Journal of
Yeast and Fungal Research

  • Abbreviation: J. Yeast Fungal Res.
  • Language: English
  • ISSN: 2141-2413
  • DOI: 10.5897/JYFR
  • Start Year: 2010
  • Published Articles: 129

Review

Fungal and yeast carotenoids

Eman Mostafa M.
  • Eman Mostafa M.
  • Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt.
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  •  Received: 19 August 2019
  •  Published: 31 July 2019

 ABSTRACT

This review reports and discusses all available information about the fungal carotenoids such general characters, derivatives, common names, chemical structure, molecular formula, color, bioactivity, and industrial applications in medicine, pharmacology, food processing, cosmetics, dyeing and others. It also reviews the classification of the fungal carotenoids, biosynthetic pathway, distribution and function inside the fungal cells. Approximately, 34 fungal carotenoids derivatives are widely distributed in fungal genera species and fungal groups. Fermented carotenoids produce by fungi from agro-industrial wastes have many advantages and solve the production problems. Development of the fungal carotenoids productivity is reported by two main strategies such as metabolic and genetic engineering.

 

Key words: Fungal carotenoids, natural pigment, applications, bioactivity.


 INTRODUCTION

Science civilization human tried to find the natural source of pigments for coloring their foods, clothes, and everything. Overpopulation around the world required development in the coloring industry and expansion in using the synthetic pigments which causes numerous problems considerably environmental pollution with toxic adverse effect on humans and causes very dangerous diseases. The industrialists and health professionals seek to find safe natural food colorants such as natural carotenoids.
 
Fungal carotenoids have many advantages as they are natural safe pigment, visually wonderful appealing colors, probiotic, beneficial to health with high (antioxidant, nutritional value, yields) and stabile against (light, radiation, heat and pH), good quality, low costs, environmental friendly, weather independent, consumed few days, easily extracted and separated from the growth media (Joshi et al., 2003; Nagpal et al., 2011; Aberoumand, 2011; Ahmad et al., 2012, 2014; Malik et al., 2012).
 
Fungal carotenoids have numerous applications on industrial scales such folk and modern medicine, pharmacology, nutritional food colorants in many food industries, cosmetics and perfume, dyeing, supplementary foods and feeds, chemotaxonomic classifications and diagnostic markers. In 2010, carotenoids market was estimated at nearly $1.2 billion but in 2018 they increased considerably to $1.4 billion with a compound annual growth rate of 2.3%. Also, Astaxanthin is the third most important carotenoid economically after β-carotene and lutein. Astaxanthin market reached the 29% of total carotenoid sales with a global market size of $225 million dollars, estimation increased to $253 million by 2018, approximately (Nagpal et al., 2011; Malik et al., 2012).
 
Carotenoids are diterpenoids derived from the ACO metabolic pathway. They are synthesized in cytoplasm and stored in cytoplasmic vesicles (lipid globules) and transported to be associated with the fungal plasma membrane fraction as structural and functional molecules.
 
 
Carotenoids have very important functions in the fungal cells; they act as antioxidant against free radical, protective molecules or photoreceptors against lethal or strong light intensity and radiations, and maintain membrane stability and fluidity. They also act as a source of the sex hormones for completing the fungal life cycle (Turner, 1971; Goodwin, 1976; Grifin, 1994; Sahadevan et al., 2013; Erasun and Johnson, 2018).
 
Natural carotenoids are classified into two large groups including non-oxygenated carotenoids derivatives have C40 and xanthophylls have C40 or oxygenated carotenoids. They are very active molecules that act as precursors of the vitamin A, antioxidant properties, protective molecules for preventing and treating numerous dangerous human diseases. They have wide diversity in different fungal groups, genera and species reviewed by many researchers (Johnson and Schroeder, 1995; Sardaryan et al., 2004; Malik et al., 2012; Venil et al., 2013; Kirti et al., 2014; Mata-Gómez et al., 2014; Tuli et al., 2015; Erasun and Johnson, 2018).
 
Production of fungal carotenoids by fermentation is promising for industrial development through metabolic engineering by controlling the nutritional and environmental growth factors (Mata-Gómez et al., 2014).
 
Metabolic engineering is the best strategy to increase the fungal and yeast carotenoids productivity and reduce the production cost by the selection of hyper-producer strains and development of their nutritional and environmental factors. Also, different extraction techniques affect the production of carotenoids amount (Yamano et al., 1994; Shimada et al., 1998; Mata-Gómez et al., 2014).
 
More recently many authors tested the development of the yeast carotenoids productivity by genetic engineering by selecting the non carotenogesis yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida utilis (Miura et al., 1998) and Pichia pastoris (Araya-Garay et al., 2012). Genetic engineering promises the world more development and increases yeast carotenoids productivity to face the industrial needs (Mata-Gómez et al., 2014, Wang et al 2017).
 
This review has been designed to focus on the fungal carotenoids, physical and chemical characters, biosynthetic pathway, classifications and their derivatives, function, importance and distribution inside the fungal cells, bioactivity for prevention and treatments of many human and animal diseases, economic importance and industrial applications as well as advantages of carotenoids production by fungal and yeast fermentation and strategies for development of the carotenoids productivity on industrial scales for facing the world needs.


 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE FUNGAL CAROTENOIDS

Natural carotenoids take a high rank and preferred on large industrial scales and accelerating  with  consumers.  
 
Carotenoids are desired for natural colorants for industrial applications in chemical, folk and modern medicine, pharmacology, nutritional food colorants in cakes, confectionaries, candies, pudding, jelly, fruits, decoration of food, baby foods, breakfast cereals, pasta, sauces, processed cheese, fruit, vitamin-enriched milk products, energy drinks and beverages, cosmetics and perfume, dyeing of wood, texture, leather, papers and painting, and supplementary foods and feed used to prevent numerous human diseases and protect human health, also used in fungal chemotaxonomic classifications and diagnostic markers (Rodríguez-Sáiz et al., 2010; Nagpal et al., 2011; Malik et al., 2012; Moharram et al., 2012; Eman, 2015, 2016; Narsing-Rao et al., 2017; Meléndez-Martínez et al., 2019; Ramesh et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2019) (Table 1).
 


 FUNGAL CAROTENOIDS BIOACTIVITY

Table 1 summarizes the carotenoids bioactivity reported by many authors such as precursors of vitamin A, antioxidant, protective molecules for preventing and treating numerous dangerous human diseases such as prevention of photo-aging, anti-skin sun burning, anti-lung cancer and antitumor, anticholesterol and anti-cardiovascular diseases, degeneration and cataract antiparasitic, immune enhancer, antiparasitic, antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, erythropoietic, protoporphyria and providing major benefits to health (Malik et al., 2012; Venil et al., 2013; Mata-Gómez et al., 2014; Tuli et al., 2015; Eman and Abbady, 2014; Eman and Farghaly, 2014; Farghaly and Eman, 2015; Eman et al., 2018; Tan and Norhaizan, 2019; Ramesh et al., 2019).
 
GENERAL CHARACTERS AND ADVANTAGES OF THE FUNGAL CAROTENOIDS
 
Fungal carotenoids are natural safe pigment with many advantages including visually wonderful appealing colors such as probiotic health benefits with highly nutritional value, high yields and high stability, good quality, low costs, and needed few nutritional and environmental requirements from agro-industrials wastes, environ-mentally friendly, weather independent, consumed few days, easily extracted and separated from the growth media (Joshi et al., 2003; Nagpal et al., 2011; Malik et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2019).
 
Fungal carotenoids classification
 
Approximately, 700 to 800 derivatives compounds related to natural carotenoids are classified into two large groups including  non-oxygenated polyunsaturated hydrocarbons carotenes derivatives having C40 and xanthophyll having C40 with oxygen or oxygenated carotenoids (Table 5). Thirty four fungal carotenoids derivatives are produced by fungi and included fourteen carotenes and twenty xanthophyll derivatives reported in this review (Davies, 1976; Malik et al., 2012; Venil et al., 2013; Kirti et al., 2014; Mata-Gómez et al., 2014; Tuli et al., 2015; Kuczynska and Jemiola-Rzeminska, 2017; Manik et al., 2017; Erasun and Johnson, 2018) (Table 5).
 
Mevalonate biosynthetic pathway in fungi
 
Erasun and Johnson (2018) reported that numerous and very important secondary metabolites are synthesize from mevalonate biosynthetic pathway. Carotenoids act as a source of four large groups of compounds (Figure 1) including:
 
(1) Vitamin A or retinoid compounds C20 include retinal, retinoic acid and retinol.
(2) Apo-carotenoids C<40 include abscisic acid, apocarotenal, bixin, crocetin, food orange 7 color, ionones and peridinin.
(3) Higher carotenoids and xanthophyll.
(4) Also, these pathways synthesize many important vitamins.
 
Fungal carotenoids biosynthetic pathway in details
 
Many authors reported the metabolic pathway of carotenoids biosynthesis by yeasts (Goodwin, 1976; Turner, 1971; Czeczuga, 1979; Vachali et al., 2012; Venil et al., 2013; Mata-Gómez et al., 2014; Kiokias et al., 2016) (Figures 1 and 2) summarized in the following:
(1) Acetyl CoA is converted to 3-hidroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) and catalyzed by HMG-CoA synthase enzyme.
(2) Then, HMG-CoA is converted in mevalonic acid (MVA), this is the first precursor of terpenoids biosynthetic pathway.
(3) MVA is phosphorylated by MVA kinase and decarboxylation into isopentenyl pyrophosphate IPP.
(4) IPP is isomerized to dimethyllayl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) with the addition of three IPP molecules to DMAPP, catalyzed by prenyl-transferase into geranyl geranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP).
(5)  Condensation   of   two   molecules  of  GGPP
produces the phytoene (the first C40 carotene of the pathway) and converted to ζ-Carotene.
(6) ζ-Carotene is converted to neurosporene.
(7) Neurosporene is subsequently desaturated to form lycopene.
(8) Many cyclic carotenoids are derived from lycopene.
(9) Neurosporene and lycopene act as a procurer of numerous derivatives of carotenoids as shown in Figures 1 and 2.
 
Distribution and function of carotenoids inside the fungal cells
 
Fungal carotenoids are synthesized in cytoplasm, stored in cytoplasmic vesicles (lipid globules) and transported to be associated with the fungal plasma membrane fraction as structural and functional molecules. Carotenoids have very important functions in the fungal cells; they act as antioxidant against free radical, protective molecules or photoreceptors against lethal or strong light intensity and radiations, and maintain membrane stability and fluidity (Figure 3). They also act as a source of the sex hormones for completing the fungal   life    cycle    (Sahadevan    et   al.,  2013; Erasun and Johnson, 2018).
 
 
 
 
They also act as a source of the sex hormones for completing the fungal life cycle (Turner, 1971; Goodwin, 1976; Grifin, 1994; Sahadevan et al., 2013; Erasun and Johnson, 2018).
 
Sahadevan et al. (2013) reported the β-carotene in Blakeslea trispora and Mucor mucedo. Zygomycetes act as a source of the male and female sex hormones for help to meet and contact between male and female gametes for completing the sexual reproduction and completing the fungal life cycle (Figure 4).
 
Biodiversity of carotenoids in fungal genera and species
 
Carotenoids have wide range of distribution in all fungal groups reviewing and reporting approximately 70 species related to 40 genera from all the fungal groups (Andrewes et al., 1976; Andrewes and Starr, 1976; Davies, 1976; Johnson and Schroeder, 1995; Domínguez-Bocanegra et al., 2007; Yurkov et al., 2008; Barredo, 2012; Malik et al., 2012; Venil et al., 2013; Mata-Gómez et al., 2014; Tuli et al., 2015; Manimala and Murugesan, 2017; Kot et al., 2018; Erasun and Johnson, 2018; Czeczuga, 1979) (Table 2). 
 
 
 
Development of fungal carotenoids productivity by metabolic engineering
 
Many   authors   reviewed   the  maximization  and development of the yeast carotenoids productivity by metabolic engineering through environmental and nutritional factors controlled (Table 3), screening and selecting the hyper-producer strains (Figure 5), and optimization and maximization of their carotenoids productivity by metabolic engineering (controlling in the nutritional and environmental factors) (Table 3 and Figure 5).
 
Development the fungal carotenoids productivity by extraction techniques
 
Mata-Gómez et al. (2014) studied the effect of different extraction methods on the amount of carotenoids produced from yeast cells and HCl and acetone methods were the most effective distribution technique (Table 4).
 
 
 
Development of the yeast carotenoids productivity by genetic engineering
 
The ideal strategy to increase carotenoids production and reduce the costs of production in yeast is by metabolic and genetic engineering. Application of genetic engineering in yeasts by:
 
(1) Selection of the hyper-producer strains of carotenoids producers.
(2) Improvement of their productivity by metabolic engineering.
(3) Obtaining the carotenogenic genes from the yeast hyper-producer strains such as Erwinia uredovora, Agrobacterium aurantiacum and Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhus.
(4) Insertion of carotenogenic genes (β-carotene, lycopene   and  astaxanthin  gene)  in  non-carotenogenic
yeast such as S. cerevisiae, P. pastoris and C. utilis.
 
These yeasts are very useful in food industries, safe yeast with many advantages as easy genetic manipulation with established host-vector systems (Verwaal et al., 2007; Voigt et al., 2016; Erasun and Johnson, 2018).
 
 


 CONCLUSION

The fungal carotenoids have many advantages to improve the food quality and industrial development, which represent the ideal method for dissolving the production coloring problems around the world and giving suitable supplementation amounts. More recently genetic engineering of the non carotenogenesis yeast S. cerevisiae, Candida utile and P. pastoris is promising to the world by more development of carotenoids production.


 CONFLICT OF INTERESTS

The author has not declared any conflict of interests.

 



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