ABSTRACT
The present study focused on documentation of wild mushroom species used by the local communities in the Selous-Niassa corridor in Namtumbo district, Ruvuma region, Tanzania. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected by interviewing 50 local informants from different localities in the Selous-Niassa wildlife corridor in Namtumbo district. The data documented include types of wild mushroom species, taxonomical information, social-demographic information, indigenous knowledge and uses. The majority of participants in the hunting of wild mushrooms were females aged between 31 and 45 years who were literate peasants with primary education only. The knowledge about edibility of wild mushroom species was mainly transferred to others by old women whereby those eaten by insects and wild animals or do not form much foam during cooking were considered edible. A total of 32 edible and inedible wild mushroom species belonging to thirteen genera and eleven families were documented. Among the documented wild mushrooms, 34.38% were edible, 25% were medicinal and edible, 31.25% did not have known uses, 6.25% were medicinal only and 3.12% were poisonous. The fidelity level (FL) and informant consensus factor (ICF) of the 32 collected wild mushroom species ranged from 50 to 100% and 0.33 to 0.91, respectively. The documentation of wild mushroom species in communities is important for conservation, transfer of knowledge and information regarding their uses across one generation to another. This study provides information that may, in the future, be used for cultivation, pharmacological, and drug discovery studies to improve public healthcare.
Key words: Utilization, ethnomycological survey, edible mushrooms, medicinal mushrooms, indigenous knowledge, mushroom hunters.
Traditional knowledge on mushrooms is a subject of great significance that unveils the relationships between humans and fungi in a given environment, both in the past and present (Molares et al., 2019; Sitotaw et al., 2020). These natural resources in developing countries, particularly in tropical countries, contribute to an important socioeconomic and ecological role in communities’ lives, especially in rural areas. Among these resources are wild edible and medicinal mushrooms that are valuably used globally, although they are neglected in some African countries (Njouonkou et al., 2016). Rural communities in Tanzania use wild mushroom for culinary purposes, nutraceuticals (Teke et al., 2018), medicine, and other uses during the beginning of the rainy season (Härkönen et al., 2003). The existing frequency of deforestation, burning of forest or bush, and overexploitation of both timber and non timber goods (Kinge et al., 2017) are most threatening wild mushroom diversity in Tanzania (Härkönen et al., 2003).
Mushrooms are distinctive large fruiting body macrofungi, which are large enough to be seen with the naked eye and can be picked by hand mostly from Basidioomycota and Agaricomycetes phylum. Mushrooms are broadly grouped into four categories: edible, inedible, medicinal, and poisonous. Macrofungi are cosmopolitan, heterotrophic organisms that are unique in their nutritional value and ecological requirements that occupy important significance in the biodiversity of the world (Hawksworth, 2012; Vishwakarma et al., 2017). Worldwide, there are about three million fungi of which only 140,000 species are macrofungi and to-date, only 14,000 (10%) are classified as mushroom species. Among these species, about 50% (7000 species) possess varying degrees of edibility, and more than 3000 species from 31 genera are edible while less than (1%) are poisonous (Dutta and Acharya, 2014). The most edible wild mushrooms reported in Tanzania are from the genus Cantharellus and Termitomyces, while among well-known poisonous mushrooms are from the genus Amanita (Härkönen et al., 2003).
Traditional knowledge on the uses of mushrooms has been transmitted orally from one generation to the next across societies globally in both past times and present. This indigenous knowledge includes different uses, belief and perception on wild mushrooms (Molares et al., 2019). Romans perceived them as the “Food of the Gods”. Ancient Greek beliefs suggest mushrooms have strength and life force providing capacity, particularly for the warriors when they were in battle. Ancient Chinese and Japanese consider mushrooms as the gifts of the God Osiris and the people belonging to ancient India and Iran used mushrooms in their ritualistic performances (Dutta and Acharya, 2014).
In tropical Africa, knowledge of traditional uses of mushrooms and their diversity documentation is scarce. However, some research done on documentation of fungi in Central, East, and West Africa has shown that there is a great diversity of edible and medicinal mushrooms. The number of macrofungal species in Cameroon is estimated at 50,000 species, of which only 1,050 are known. In sub-Saharan Africa, around 300 edible mushrooms have been identified, particularly in Central and Southern Africa (Soro et al., 2019). In addition to the limited information on the macrofungi diversity in tropical regions, very little is known about their ethnomycological knowledge and its importance in Africa countries (Debnath et al., 2019; Njouonkou et al., 2016). In Tanzania, wild mushrooms are among high diversity natural resources which are not well documented. However, about 100 species of wild mushrooms are documented in different regions of Tanzania (Tibuhwa, 2013; Härkönen et al., 2003).
Mushrooms are filamentous fungi with fruiting bodies showing a huge number of pharmacological aspects in human health. They are considered one of the delicious foods and are commonly produced worldwide. These macrofungi are a rich source of nutrients and bioactive compounds such as proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, fibers, minerals, low lipid contents, and essential amino acids. They also have huge medicinal properties including antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, anticancer, and hypocholesterolemic activity (Panda and Tayung, 2015; Venkatachalapathi and Paulsamy, 2016; Hussein and Tibuhwa, 2020; Kinge et al., 2020). The medicinal properties are thought to be due to the presence of diverse secondary metabolites. Mushrooms accumulate different types of secondary metabolites, including alkaloids, phenolic compounds, polyketides, terpenes, steroids, and others (Venkatachalapathi and Paulsamy, 2016; Hussein and Tibuhwa, 2020; Kinge et al., 2020).
The tropical regions in Africa have the highest diversity of macrofungi that has not been completely exploited (Kinge et al., 2017). Tanzania is among the tropical regions in Africa which have rich biodiversity but poorly unexplored. The communities in various tribes in Tanzania including the Haya, Nyamwezi, Sukuma, Hehe, Bena, Makua, and Makonde use macrofungi for various purposes including food, traditional medicines, and rituals. Some tribes such as Chagga, Maasai, and Meru lack knowledge on mushroom traditional uses (Härkönen et al., 2003). However, in other Tanzanian communities ethno-mycology knowledge is scarce due to a low level of documentation. There is no strong purposeful effort in Tanzania to update the wild mushrooms status. Therefore, the present study documented the edible, inedible, and medicinal mushroom species used by community groups in the Selous-Niassa corridor in Namtumbo district, Ruvuma region, Tanzania.
Study area
The study was conducted at the Selous-Niassa corridor in Namtumbo district, located in the Ruvuma region. The region is located in the Southern part of Tanzania (Figure 1). The Selous-Niassa Wildlife corridor in the Ruvuma region of Southern Tanzania extends roughly from 10° S to 11°40’ S. The corridor has a total area of about 10,000 km2. The larger part of the area of the corridor is found in the Namtumbo district while the other area is found in the east part of the Tunduru district. The corridor is bordered by Selous in the North and the Niassa in Mozambique along the Ruvuma River in the South. The collection was done in Likuyuseka, Nambecha, Kilimasera, Kitanda, and Magazini village in the Namtumbo district.
Ethnographic background and climate
According to the 2012 Population Census, the Namtumbo district human population is 201, 639 people (98,335 male and 103,304 female), whereby population density is 11 people per km2 (2012 Census; URT, 2013). Mean annual rainfall is about 1230 mm. The rainfall in the corridor decreases from 1200-1300 mm in the Northern part to 800 mm per year in the Southern part along the Ruvuma River. The mean annual temperature is about 21°C (Bloesch and Mbago, 2008).
Dominant ethnic groups within the 29 villages in Namtumbo district are the Yao followed by Ndendeule who settled in the Northern part and a small group of the Ngoni tribe. The community’s economy in these three ethnic groups depends on small-scale farming of crops including maize, beans, and paddy for food, with few cash crops which include cashew-nuts, sesame, and tobacco. Livestock keeping is poorly developed but in the corridor area, livestock keeping is not completely ranched (Bloesch and Mbago, 2006, 2008).
Selection of informants and interviews
The entry point to the communities was through village government leaders, who were requested to provide information about individuals in their communities with experience in the identification and collection of wild mushrooms. Resulting from the list that was provided by the village leaders, individuals who appeared to be more knowledgeable about wild mushrooms were selected for detailed interviews. The selected interviewees signed an informed consent form before participating in detailed interviews. Two interview rounds were done, and for each round there were 25 interviewees (10 from the Ndendeule tribe, 10 from the Yao tribe, and 5 from the Ngoni tribe), making a total of 50 interviewees. The selection of respondents focused on people who, in the community, have exceptional knowledge on the use of wild mushrooms for food and medicine. The interviews were conducted in five villages in the local languages; Ngoni, Ndendeule, and Yao depending on the ethnic groups. The information which was enquired from the interviewees included; whether wild mushrooms had any importance to their livelihoods, the seasons when mushrooms are available, uses of mushrooms, and how collectors acquired knowledge about wild mushrooms. Others were: how to differentiate edible and poisonous wild mushrooms; whether they use any of the wild mushrooms for medicinal purposes; and whether there are specific people in their communities who specialized in the collection of wild mushrooms.
The collection of wild mushroom samples was done during rainy seasons in four sessions based on availability; February to March both in 2019 and 2020. The initial identification of the wild mushroom species was done in the field according to Härkönen et al. (2003), where vernacular names and putative scientific names of the wild mushroom species were documented. The collected wild mushroom species were authenticated at the Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Dar es Salaam. Voucher specimens were kept at the Herbarium of the Institute of Traditional Medicine, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences.
Data analysis
Wild mushrooms data were summarized using descriptive statistics to identify the number and percentage, socio-demographic information, indigenous knowledge on edibility, uses, genera, and families of wild mushrooms used in the community. Relative frequency of citation (RFC), fidelity level (FL), and informants consensus factor (ICF) were determined for quantitative data analysis.
RFC signifies the local importance of each species in a study area. The RFC was determined by:
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The study was awarded Ethical clearance by the Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences Institutional Review Board (Ethical clearance No. Ref.No.DA.282/298/01, Dated, 26th October 2019). Permission to conduct the study in the Namtumbo district was sought from all authorities from the district to the village level. All informants gave prior informed consent before they were interviewed.
Documentation of mushrooms species
A total of 32 mushroom species belonging to thirteen genera and eleven families were documented (Table 1). The most represented wild mushroom families were Russulaceae (10 species) and Cantharellaceae (5 species), followed by Boletaceae (4 species), Clavulinaceae (3 species), and Agaricaceae and Auriculariaceae (2 species). The other families documented and represented by one species each include Amanitaceae, Garnodermataceae, Marasmiusmiaceae, Polyporaceae, and Suillaceae. Among the 32 documented wild mushrooms, 11 (34.38%) were edible, 10 (31.25%) inedible, 8 (25%) were both medicinal and edible species, 2 (6.25%) were medicinal only and 1 (3.12%) poisonous.
Socio-demographic information of informants
A total of 50 wild mushroom hunters and collectors including 29 (58%) women and 21 (42%) men participated as informants. Twenty were Ndendeule, twenty were Yao and ten were Ngoni. The age distribution of the wild mushroom hunters were 20-30 years 4 (8%), 31-45 years 21 (42%), 46-55 years 18 (36%), 56-65 years 4 (8%) and above 65 years 3 (6%). More than half of the respondents 31 (62%) had primary school education, while 19 (38%) were uneducated.
Indigenous knowledge on wild mushrooms
All the informants recognized wild mushrooms as a source of low-cost food, but only 16 (32.32%) recognized wild mushrooms as a source of medicines and 1 (2%) reported that some of the wild mushrooms are used for recreational and ritual functions. Knowledge on wild mushrooms is transmitted from generation to generation by elderly people and mushroom hunters. Three criteria are used for wild mushroom identification; wild mushrooms that are eaten by insects and wild animals are recognized as edible wild mushrooms; wild mushrooms, which foam during cooking, or those which produce latex are classified as inedible. Some are out rightly recognized as poisonous wild mushrooms.
Harvested wild mushrooms are either consumed immediately or preserved for future use. Preservation of wild mushrooms for long-term use is done by drying in the sun, smoking, and salting. The wild mushrooms are also boiled followed by drying in the sun as an alternative preservation method.
Relative frequency of citation (RFC) and fidelity level (FL)
The FL of the 32 collected wild mushroom species ranged from 50 to 100% (Table 2). The wild mushroom species with high FL were Agaricus species, Cantharellus isabelinus, Afrocantharellus platyphyllus, Afrocantharellus symoensii, Lactarius denigricans, Lactarius edulis, Lactarius pumilus, Lactarius tanzanicus, Amanita masasiensis, Gastromycetes species, Auricularia delicata, and Auricularia polytricha. The RFC index authenticates the frequency of citation of wild mushroom species for various uses. RFC of reported species ranged from 22 to 100% (Table 2).
The species with high RFC were Agaricus spp., C. isabelinus, A. symoensii, Lactarius kabansus, Lactarius medusa, L. tanzanicus, A. masasiensis, Clavulina wisoli, Gastromycetes spp., A. delicata, and A. polytricha.
Informant consensus factor (ICF)
The ICF value for selected Tanzanian wild mushrooms ranged between 0.33 and 0.91 (Table 3). A higher ICF value found in this study showed practically high reliability of informants in using relatively few species in a particular use category. ICF were categorized into five groups on the basis of the use of informants’ reports: edible, medicinal, inedible, both edible and medicinal as well as poisonous.
In this study, it has been established that wild edible mushroom species are significant non-timber natural resources of food supplements in the Namtumbo district, and this was found to be a common feature among the three tribes living in the district.
According to the literature, this is a common phenomenon for rural communities in developing and developed countries who use mushrooms to maintain health and increase longevity since ancient times (Panda and Tayung, 2015). Ethnic groups in other parts of Tanzania also use wild mushrooms for food including the Coast, Iringa, Mara, Morogoro, Ruvuma, Shinyanga, Tabora, and Tanga regions (Tibuhwa, 2018). Some ethnics in Tanzania use mushroom species to promote healthy recovery of mothers after childbirth, malnutrition in children and elders, treatment of stomach pain as well as management of heart conditions (Haärkönen et al., 2003). In the Namtumbo district, wild mushrooms of the genus Cantharellus are the most eaten wild mushrooms followed by the genus Lactarius. The genus Cantharellus is the most consumed species in most ethnic groups in Africa including Burundi, Cameroon, and Congo (Kamalebo and Kesel, 2020). Most edible wild mushrooms in India are of the genus Lactarius and Cantherallus (Kumar et al., 2017).
Wild mushrooms are collected during the rainy season by different ethnic groups in the Selous- Niassa wildlife corridor in Namtumbo district since this is when wild mushrooms grow and they disappear shortly after the rainy season in mid-December to late January and late February to early April. The same practice has been observed among other tribes in Tanzania including Bena, Makua, Hehe, Ngoni, Nyamwezi, Nyika, and Sambaa (Haärkönen et al., 2003). The collected wild mushrooms are used as food for about 2 to 3 weeks, after which period most of these tribes preserve wild mushrooms for food by drying them while still raw or they boil the wild mushrooms and dry them in the sun. The present study has established that the Yao, Ndendeule, and Ngoni tribes in the Namtumbo district use the same methods for wild mushroom preservation.
Wild mushrooms gathering or hunting by other Tanzanian ethnic groups are gender-oriented particularly by women for food and commercial purposes (Tibuhwa, 2013, 2018). Wild mushroom activities including collection, selling, processing, and preservation are dominated by women, in Njombe and Mufindi (Chelela et al., 2014). The same was observed in the Namtumbo district; where women are the main wild mushroom collectors and hunters. This seems to be the trend in many societies (Garibay-Orijel et al., 2012). Women worldwide especially in developing countries are the main collectors, traders, and possess knowledge of wild mushroom use such as for food, medicines, and recreational purposes (Haärkönen et al., 2003; Garibay-Orijel et al., 2012; De Leon et al., 2016; Fui et al., 2018). In Mexico (Ruan-Soto, 2006), Nigeria and Brazil (Oso, 1975; Prance, 1984; Teke et al., 2018), and the Philippines (Tantengco and Ragragio, 2018) most wild mushroom sellers and gatherers or hunters are women above 40 years of age.
In this study, it was observed that knowledge about wild mushrooms is transferred to younger generations by the women collectors, and elderly women constitute a big knowledge resource that is important for the transfer of this knowledge to young generations. Knowledge on the identification of wild mushrooms, folk taxonomy, habitat, phenology, and preparation methods are transferred orally in the Namtumbo district and, in other indigenous communities in Tanzania. This shows that if efforts are not made to document knowledge on these wild mushrooms, knowledge will eventually disappear with time and the embedded economic potential may not be realized. The role of elders, especially women (mothers), in transferring this knowledge from one generation to another has been previously underscored (Sitotaw et al., 2020). Tanzanian children are taken by their mothers to identify edible from inedible and pick edible wild mushrooms for food. This knowledge is not taught in schools in rural areas where these wild mushrooms grow (Härkönen et al., 2003).
The tribes in the Namtumbo district determine the edibility of wild mushrooms by morphological charters, growth habitats, and whether eaten by wild animals or insects through observation. Similar methods of edibility identification have been reported in other tribes of Tanzania (Tibuhwa, 2018) and elsewhere in the developing countries (Basumatary and Gogoi, 2016; Teke et al., 2018; Mérida Ponce et al., 2019). Wild mushrooms with mild tastes, thick flesh, and eaten by tortoise or rodents are edible (Fui et al., 2018). The wild mushrooms changing color to red during cooking, yellowish or blackish after touching or cutting, and give a burning sensation on the tongue when tasted raw are considered inedible (Fui et al., 2018; Sitotaw et al., 2020). The three tribes living in the Selous- Niassa wildlife corridor use the related methods for inedibility identification of wild mushrooms.
High values of FL validate potential traditional mushrooms for specific use while low FL values indicate a wide range of uses with the disagreement of a particular use of some specific species (Jamil and Tanweer, 2016; Dapar et al., 2020). A score of 100% FL for a specific mushroom species indicates that all of the use-reports mention the same mushroom for specific use in the study area (Khastini et al., 2018). In Namtumbo district Agaricus spp., C. isabelinus, A. masasiensis, L. denigricans, L. pumulis, Suillus, and Clavulina species had 100% FL for edibility. This FL value information reveals that the three communities in the Namtumbo district rely on specific mushroom species for food (Kim and Song, 2014).
The ICF for the species was determined to know the agreement among the informants living in the Selous-Niassa Corridor in Namtumbo district for indigenous knowledge on wild mushrooms edibility, inedibility, and medicinal uses. The ICF reflected homogeneity, reliability, and the extent of informants’ knowledge in the use of wild mushroom species for food, medicinal purposes, and those that are considered inedible in the communities (Uddin and Hassan, 2014). The high ICF value for edible wild mushrooms indicates that wild mushrooms are a valuable traditionally used macrofungi for three ethics in the Namtunbo district as previously suggested in other studies. The low ICF value for inedible wild mushroom species as recorded in the study could be due to a lack of indigenous knowledge on the identification and toxicity determination (Uddin and Hassan, 2014; Tibuhwa, 2018). This is supported by the fact that some of the wild mushrooms that are not eaten in the Namtumbo district are not all poisonous and they are taken as food in other regions in Tanzania (Tibuhwa, 2012, 2013, 2018). Wild mushroom species with high informant consensus factor and fidelity level are interesting for research and as suggested by other previous researchers they should be given priority to carry out bioassay and toxicity studies (Khastini et al., 2018).
Research highlights
(1) The present study exposes the rich ethnomycological practices of wild mushroom species use and indigenous knowledge of Ndendeule, Yao, and Ngoni ethnic groups of the Namtumbo district.
(2) Exchange of information among the local communities in Namtumbo district was observed among three tribes; however, the younger generation has a potential decline of interest due to modern lifestyles and modern medicines.
(3) Novel medicinal use, nutritional use of edible and inedible wild mushroom species were reported in this study.
(4) The consolidated data of this qualitative and quantitative ethnomycology study contributes knowledge on the indigenous use of wild mushrooms that should be taken up by scientists, physicians, and experts such as phytochemists, botanists, pharmacists, taxonomists, and environmentalists for value addition and products development.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE ASPECTS
Indigenous communities in the Namtumbo district are rich custodians of traditional knowledge and practice in the utilization of wild mushroom species for food and medicine. They have the ability to identify edible wild mushrooms from inedible and poisonous mushrooms. Further work in scientific identification of edible and medicinal mushroom species, nutritional proximate analyses, and bioactivity assays are needed to support the economic exploitation of this resource.
The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.
The authors thank all the local informants, elders, and wild mushroom collectors for participating in the study and for sharing their treasured knowledge. They thank the anonymous reviewers for all their useful recommendations and contributions. They also appreciate the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) for the financial support that facilitated this research work through a Ph.D. scholarship to MQ.
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