African Journal of
Microbiology Research

  • Abbreviation: Afr. J. Microbiol. Res.
  • Language: English
  • ISSN: 1996-0808
  • DOI: 10.5897/AJMR
  • Start Year: 2007
  • Published Articles: 5233

Minireview

Host-microbe-drug triad: Role of chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine in Covid-19 treatment-focus on inflammatory cytokine inhibition

Patrisio Njiru Njeru
  • Patrisio Njiru Njeru
  • Department of Food Science and Technology, Technical University of Kenya, P. O. Box 52428 – 00200, Nairobi, Kenya.
  • Google Scholar


  •  Received: 16 August 2020
  •  Accepted: 18 November 2020
  •  Published: 31 December 2020

References

Al-Bari MAA (2015). Chloroquine analogues in drug discovery: new directions of uses, mechanisms of actions and toxic manifestations from malaria to multifarious diseases. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 70(6):1608-1621.
Crossref

 

Cao X (2020). COVID-19: immunopathology and its implications for therapy. Nature Reviews immunology 20(5):269-270.
Crossref

 
 

Chang TH, Wang LF, Lin YS, Yang CS, Yu CY, Lin YL (2014). 25: Hydroxychloroquine activates host antiviral innate immunity. Cytokine70(1):33-34.
Crossref

 
 

Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, Qiu Y, Wang J, Liu Y, Wei Y, Xia J, Yu T, Zhang X, Zhang L (2020). Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. The Lancet 395(10223):507-513.
Crossref

 
 

Dijkmans BA, Verweij CL (1997). Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine equally affect tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin 6, and interferon-gamma production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells. The Journal of Rheumatology 24(1):55-60.

 
 

Gautret P, Lagier JC, Parola P, Hoang VT, Meddeb L, Mailhe M, Doudier B, Courjon J, Giordanengo V, Vieira VE, Dupont HT, Honoré S, Colson P, Chabrière E, La Scola B, Rolain J-M, Brouqui P, Raoulta D (2020). Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 105949.
Crossref

 
 

Guan W-J, Ni Z-Y, Hu Y, Liang W, Ou C-Q, He J-X, Liu L, Shan H, Lei C-L, Hui DSC, Du B, Li L-J, Zeng G, Yuen K-Y, Chen R-C, Tang C-L, Wang T, Chen P-Y, Xiang J, Li S-Y, Wang J-L, Liang Z-J, Peng Y-X, Wei L, Liu Y, Hu Y-H, Peng P, Wang J-M, Liu J-Y, Chen Z, Li G, Zheng Z-J, Qiu S-Q, Luo J, Ye C-J, Zhu S-Y, Zhong N-S (2020). Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. New England Journal of Medicine 382(18):1708-1720.
Crossref

 
 

Hjorton K, Hagberg N, Israelsson E, Jinton L, Berggren O, Sandling JK, Thörn K, Mo J, Eloranta M-L, Rönnblom L (2018). Cytokine production by activated plasmacytoid dendritic cells and natural killer cells is suppressed by an IRAK4 inhibitor. Arthritis Research and therapy 20(1):1-11.
Crossref

 
 

Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X, Cheng Z, Yu T, Xia J, Wei Y, Wu W, Xie X, Yin W, Li H, Liu M, Xiao Y, Gao H, Guo L, Xie J, Wang G, Jiang R, Gao Z, Jin Q, Wang J, Cao B (2020). Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. The Lancet 395(10223):497-506.
Crossref

 
 

Keyaerts E, Vijgen L, Maes P, Neyts J, Van Ranst M (2004). In vitro inhibition of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus by chloroquine. Biochemical and biophysical research communications 323(1):264-268.
Crossref

 
 

Li G, Fan Y, Lai Y, Han T, Li Z, Zhou P, Pan P, Wang W, Hu D, Liu X, Zhang Q, Wu J (2020). Coronavirus infections and immune responses. Journal of medical Virology 92(4):424-432.
Crossref

 
 

Liu B, Li M, Zhou Z, Guan X, Xiang Y (2020). Can we use interleukin-6 (IL-6) blockade for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-induced cytokine release syndrome (CRS)?. Journal of Autoimmunity 102452.
Crossref

 
 

McGonagle D, Sharif K, O'Regan A, Bridgewood C (2020). Interleukin-6 use in COVID-19 pneumonia related macrophage activation syndrome. Autoimmunity reviews 102537.
Crossref

 
 

Molina JM, Delaugerre C, Le Goff J, Mela-Lima B, Ponscarme D, Goldwirt L, de Castro N (2020). No evidence of rapid antiviral clearance or clinical benefit with the combination of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin in patients with severe COVID-19 infection. M ́edecine et Maladies Infectieuses 50(384):30085-30088.
Crossref

 
 

Moore JB, June CH (2020). Cytokine release syndrome in severe COVID-19. Science 368(6490):473-474.
Crossref

 
 

Ornstein MH, Sperber K (1996). The antiinflammatory and antiviral effects of hydroxychloroquine in two patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and active inflammatory arthritis. Arthritis & Rheumatism: Official Journal of the American College of Rheumatology 39(1):157-161.
Crossref

 
 

Prompetchara E, Chutitorn K, Tanapat P (2020). Immune responses in COVID-19 and potential vaccines: Lessons learned from SARS and MERS epidemic. Asian Pacific Journal of Allergy Immunology 38(1):1-9.

 
 

Rothe C, Schunk M, Sothmann P, Bretzel G, Froeschl G, Wallrauch C, Zimmer T, Thiel V, Janke C, Guggemos W, Seilmaier M, Drosten C, Vollmar P, Zwirglmaier K, Zange S, Wölfel R, Hoelscher M (2020). Transmission of 2019-nCoV infection from an asymptomatic contact in Germany. New England Journal of Medicine 382(10):970-971.
Crossref

 
 

Schrezenmeier E, Doerner T (2020). Mechanisms of action of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine: implications for rheumatology. Nature Reviews Rheumatology 7:1-12.

 
 

Shi Y, Ying W, Changsun S (2020). COVID-19 infection: the perspective on immune response. Cell Death and Differentiation 27(5):1451-1454.
Crossref

 
 

Sperber K, Quraishi HUMA, Kalb TH, Panja ASIT, Stecher V, Mayer L (1993). Selective regulation of cytokine secretion by hydroxychloroquine: inhibition of interleukin 1 alpha (IL-1-alpha) and IL-6 in human monocytes and T cells. The Journal of Rheumatology 20(5):803-808.

 
 

Sun X, Ni Y, Zhang M (2020). Rheumotologitsts' view on the use of hydroxychloroquine to treat COVID-19. Emerging Microbes and Infections 9(1):830-832.
Crossref

 
 

Vincent MJ, Bergeron E, Benjannet S, Erickson BR, Rollin PE, Ksiazek TG, Seidah NG, Nichol ST (2005). Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread. Virology Journal 2(1):69.
Crossref

 
 

Wang LF, Lin YS, Huang NC, Yu CY, Tsai WL, Chen JJ, Kubota T, Matsuoka M, Chen S-R, Yang C-S, Lu R-W, Lin Y-L, Chang T-H (2015). Hydroxychloroquine-inhibited dengue virus is associated with host defense machinery. Journal of Interferon & Cytokine Research, 35(3):143-156.
Crossref

 
 

Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, Zhu F, Liu X, Zhang J, Wang B, Xiang H, Cheng Z, Xiong Y, Zhao Y, Li Y, Wang X, Peng Z (2020a). Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. Jama 323(11):1061-1069.
Crossref

 
 

Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, Yang X, Liu J, Xu M, Shi Z, Hu Z, Zhong W, Xiao G (2020b). Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell research 30(3):269-271.
Crossref

 
 

Willis R, Seif AM, McGwin Jr.G, Martinez-Martinez LA, Gonzalez EB, Dang N, Papalardo E, Liu J, Vilá LM, Reveille JD, Alarcon G, Pierangeli SS (2012). Effect of hydroxychloroquine treatment on pro-inflammatory cytokines and disease activity in SLE patients: data from LUMINA (LXXV), a multiethnic US cohort. Lupus 21(8):830-835.
Crossref

 
 

Wölfel R, Corman VM, Guggemos W, Seilmaier M, Zange S, Müller M A, Niemeyer D, Jones TC, Vollmar P, Rothe C, Hoelscher M, Bleicker T, Brünink S, Schneider J, Ehmann R, Zwirglmaier K, Drosten C, Wendtner C (2020). Virological assessment of hospitalized patients with COVID-2019. Nature pp. 1-5.
Crossref

 
 

Xu Z, Shi L, Wang Y, Zhang J, Huang L, Zhang C, Liu S, Zhao P, Liu H, Zhu L, Tai Y, Bai C, Gao T, Song J, Xia P, Dong J, Zhao J, Wang F-S (2020). Pathological findings of COVID-19 associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Lancet respiratory medicine 8(4):420-422.
Crossref