ABSTRACT
Leadership is critical to shaping and supporting individual teachers’ endeavors to integrate new programs into their teaching. To determine the necessary support, leaders must be aware of the needs of the school and its individuals. In understanding their needs, leaders can then support teachers through appropriate professional development and the discussion of identified issues to sustain improvements in teaching and learning throughout the school. Optimally, school leaders’ perception of need will match that of the teachers with whom they work. However, when perceptions do not match, there may be possible repercussions.
Key words: Program implementation, perspectives, professional development, school improvement, cultural impact.
This article seeks to heighten educational leaders’ awareness of the importance in understanding different perceptions of difficulty between them and teachers in relation to various aspects of program implementation. While the study focused on the implementation of the International Baccalaureate’s (IB) Primary Years Program (PYP), the objective is to share the results of six Case Study Schools in Spain to promote similar analysis and reflection by leaders in relation to their own contexts. The research determined: What aspects in program implementation were perceived as easy or difficult? The statistical hypothesis stated teachers and leaders perceived differently the ease of program implementation in schools. This article goes on to discuss the cultural dimensions of leadership’s possible impact on program implementation.
During the time of this study, the PYP grew 154% worldwide. In the last year of the study, it grew 14% and its 1000th PYP school was authorized (IBO, 2013). The PYP is for students aged 3 to 11 where 11 may be the students’ age at the end or beginning of the academic year; the final year of the PYP is often dependent on legislation of the host country. Spanish education is compulsory from 6 years of age. Primary Education comprises three two-year stages: 1st Cycle (ages 6-8), 2nd Cycle (ages 8-10) and 3rd Cycle (ages 10-12). Pre- primary Education comprises two three-year stages: 1st Cycle (ages 0-3) and 2nd Cycle (ages 3-5). The school year comprises at least 175 days with schools operating an average of 25 (55-min) periods over five days. Compulsory content areas at the time of the study included: Natural, social and cultural environment; art;physical education; Spanish language and literature; foreign language; mathematics; religion (compulsorily offered, voluntarily taken); and citizenship or human rights education (in 5th or 6th grade). The implementation of the Ley Orgánica de Educación (MEC, 2006) took place during this study from 2006/07 to 2009/10. The main curricular aspects addressed were the development of the core for the second cycle of Pre-primary and Primary Education culminating in the development of core curricula for the third cycle of Primary. In October 2013, the Spanish Ministry of Education and Culture signed an agreement with the IB to improve recognition, pilot programs and research impact to improve the quality of education (Kearney, 2013).
The first IB school in Spain was authorized to impart the Diploma Program in 1977. At the start of the study, 2 schools were PYP authorized in Spain, both international schools catering to employees of multinationals and embassies. The six Case Study Schools comprised the subsequently authorized schools in Spain. These schools belong to a family-owned group of schools. The President oversees its running, assisted by the Vice President and Director General. At the time of the study, the Secretary General was responsible to the Director General and oversaw corporate and educational management. The school directors were responsible to the secretary general but worked closely with the corporate and educational management sectors. In educational management, the Director of the International Programs (DPPII) with the Coordinator of International Programs, specialized in the PYP, developed the institutional PYP implementation plan. The Coordinator of International Programs oversaw the implementation process in the schools, communicating directly with PYP Coordinators in the schools and coordinating work as necessary with the Directors, Primary and Infant Coordinators. The Department of Innovation and Pedagogy supported the DPPII in areas related to Spanish Ministry legislation and institutional memory. The Case Study Schools are overseen by a Director who works with Coordinators in Primary and Infants. Along with the PYP Coordinator, they comprise a minimal pedagogical leadership team. Over the years, this structure changed in some schools to include Subject Coordinators and in 2010-11, the position of Sub director of Learning and Development was added. The PYP Coordinators were scheduled to work with teams of teachers at each grade level and specialist teachers as necessary and, when possible early in the process, to develop the Program of Inquiry and the unit planners. School Directors, Primary and Infant Coordinators were responsible for scheduling these meetings on the timetable. Support and resources are organized by schools. As noted previously, by law, the development of methodology and choice of textbooks and teaching materials is the responsibility of the school. At the start of the implementation process, the DPPII suggested books to order. This was a two-year process, turned over to the schools. These orders, placed institutionally, were approved by the Finance Department then passed to the Purchasing Department. Improvements in ICT were already in motion, fully supporting the PYP initiative. The Systems Department ensured the professional development and availability of technological resources throughout the process. Changes in staff were planned to increase the number of bilingual teachers. This meant the Administration of Personnel Department needed to support advertising and hiring aligned to this initiative as requested by School Directors. Along with the Human Resources Department, professional development in the PYP would be in their interest.
The Case Study Schools, belonging to four different Spanish Autonomous Communities – Madrid, Catalunya, Andalucia and Galicia, are generally located in suburban areas, removed from the metropolitan hub; however, the Primary only school is in the heart of Madrid. The Case Study Schools are private national schools catering to the local community where students are primarily Spanish nationals; there are very few other nationalities represented in the student populous. The number of students in the PYP program in these schools ranges from 265 to 955 and serve ages 1-12. Five of the schools have or have had the IB Diploma program in place for many years when they began the PYP implementation process. Equally four of the schools have authorization for the implementation of the Middle Years Program of the IB. The decision for the implementation of the PYP was to give continuity to the other two programs. Keeping this in mind, the schools were organized into two phases of implementation with three schools in each phase and one year difference in the process between the two phases. The implementation of each phase followed the quality assurance process of the IB with consideration given to the needs in changing paradigms within the cultural context of each school. Implementation of the PYP began in 2006. The study concluded in 2013 with the authorization of the sixth school.
DuFour et al. (2010) identifies school leadership as key to successful program implementation. The level of trust and value alignment between school leaders and teachers as well as program expectations influences implementation (Culross and Tarver, 2011; Hartman, 2008; Gigliotti-Labay, 2010). Leaders are responsible for building this trust and communicating with teachers to ensure a positive school culture (Chance, 2009). Perceptions affect receptivity and implementation. Principals and coordinators must believe in, support and actively promote new programs to ensure buy-in, thereby reducing uncertainty and avoidance by teachers. Gu (2010) advocates for a culturally relative approach to innovation, emphasizing the importance of considering culturally bound values and conventions in the implementation process. Hofstede (2008) conceptualized four dimensions of independent preference across national cultures to show how values in the workplace are influenced. These comprised the following indexes: Power Distance (PDI), Individualism vs Collectivism (IDV), Masculinity vs Femininity (MAS), and Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI). The two indices addressed in this article, Power Distances (PDI) and Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI), have been given more global objectives than used by Hofstede. In teaching and learning, these may broadly define some of the interferences that can affect the implementation of educational initiatives in different cultural contexts. That is, Uncertainty Avoidance levels may influence expected communication and Power Distance may lead to differences in contextual perceptions. Hofstede and Minkov (2013) defined these dimensions as follows:
1. Power Distance (PDI) “…the extent to which less powerful members… within a society expect and accept that power is distributed unequally (page 7).”
2. Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) “…the extent to which a member… feels threatened by uncertain, unknown, ambiguous, or unstructured situations (page 8).”
There is a 100-point range in the indices between countries that have very small/strong and very large/weak power distance and uncertainty avoidance tendencies.
Along with administrative support, Pinto (2005) identified instructional freedom as influencing program implementation. The breadth or specificity of policy and law define the profession as well as the adaptability and compatibility of adopted curricula. Educational responsibilities in Spain are defined and regulated by sectors under the Spanish Ministry of Education. The central government sets general organization, minimum curriculum requirements and regulates academic and professional qualifications. Becoming a school leader in Spain is largely dependent on the High Inspectorate’s analysis of teachers who express interest in public school administrative roles. In private schools, leaders usually move up from teaching positions without training. Autonomous communities are responsible within territories for the next level of curriculum development and staff management. Education inspections at this level address diagnostic evaluations. Local administration is responsible for sites, extra-curricular activities and monitoring compulsory schooling. Spanish curriculum is 65% prescriptive (55% in Autonomous Communities with a regional language) giving freedom to schools to organize the other 35% of the curriculum. Schools are autonomous in organizational, educational and financial matters. Educational institutions may be owned by the education administration or a private party (person or legal entity). Private schools may be financially independent or government dependent (CIDE, 2008).
By Spanish law, pre-primary and primary teachers are required to hold teaching degrees. The Maestro degree is obtained in a three (now four) year program of study at the end of which those who complete the program are considered generalist teachers. Music, physical education and foreign language teachers are specialist subjects. In public-funded schools, teachers are selected by examination and positions are usually permanent. Private school teachers sign a contract with the management of the teaching center (MEC, 2007). Teachers in this national context are often torn between balancing “meaningful, applied learning situation in integrated contexts … [and the] focus on traditional, conceptual learning of subject-based knowledge” (Venville et al., 2009). Deng and Carless (2009) found that teachers experimented and demonstrated communicative-teaching orientation more when not subjected to heavy exam-oriented mandates but rather the opportunity to diversify curricula when less pressured. Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) exams heightened the pressure to achieve good test results around the world, putting teachers under the spotlight. The Spanish Inspectorate may oversee exams and use student results in evaluating school success. These are still published nationally in league-type tables. This stress often impacts teacher beliefs and practices by diminishing their motivation to experiment with pedagogical practices, which are long-term and holistically oriented.
Hattie (2015) found critical the role of teachers as well as the leaders in maximizing student achievement. Beane (1996) envisioned four challenges teachers may encounter when implementing a new program: Resource availability, school infrastructure, their perception, and student variation. When clear, practical connections are made to what is familiar and need is established individually and collectively, buy-in is more successful. This comes to the fore especially when innovation is a top-down decision from leaders rather than one agreed upon by teachers.
Teachers’ prior experience, knowledge and perceived value of the program as well as their self-efficacy also influence achieving implementation goals (Tschannen-Moran and McMaster, 2009; Pinto, 2005; Powell and Anderson, 2002). Value and perceived need are equally influenced by their beliefs and assumptions about the program, learners’ characteristics, and knowledge about teaching and learning (Nishino, 2012). These, in turn, are subject to the influence of cultural beliefs and norms. Cultural dissonance is found to pose potential challenges to the integration of the International Baccalaureate (IB) programs into teaching (Drake, 2004; Lee et al., 2011). The philosophical underpinnings of the IB are abstract and elusive philosophical concepts (Halicioglu, 2008). Its non-specificity has been perceived as an obstacle for teachers (Gigliotti-Labay, 2010). The IB curriculum relies heavily on teachers’ creative professionalism, their understanding of IB philosophy and grasp of implementation skills (McGhee, 2003). Success of implementation can be related to teachers’ qualities. Teachers who lacked exposure during teacher training to the fundamental aspects of the IB have shown greater concern (Twigg, 2010).
The International Baccalaureate® (IB) is a non-profit educational foundation designed to develop intellectual, personal, emotional and social skills needed to live in today’s changing world (IBO, 2013). A strong leadership team is critical to shaping and supporting individual teachers’ endeavors to integrate IB program philosophy and practice into their teaching (Hall et al., 2009; Riesbeck, 2008). IB´s Primary Years Program (PYP) is one of their four programs. Aspects fundamental to all IB programs include: International mindedness, inquiry-based teaching, constructivism, conceptual MEC, 2006). In either mode, content is meant to be taught in both languages in accordance with a proportional distribution, so that pupils can express themselves correctly in both at the end of compulsory education. It is not intended that all content be taught in both languages. Established textbooks are not meant to be used for the teaching of the additional language understanding, approaches to learning and reflection, among others.
In the Definition and Selection of Competences, the OECD (2005) recognized that an internationally minded person is characterized by more than knowledge, concepts and skills. Today’s society calls more on personal attributes as well as characteristic attitudes towards various aspects of life which ensure the well-being of the individual to support that of a group. The IB mission statement promotes an understanding of other people, with their differences and an acceptance and tolerance towards these (IBO, 2013). It translates into a set of attributes, the IB Learners’ Profile (IB, 2009), embodying what it means to be internationally-minded. These serve as learning outcomes for IB program graduates as well as a map for one’s life-long journey.
Inherent in the IB learner profile is educating the whole person for a life of active responsible citizenship. The concept of action is a thread that runs through IB programs. Dewey (1938) saw experience as a transaction between the individual (internal) and the environment. Kolb (1984) recognizes that knowledge is continuously gained through personal and environmental experience. Like Kolb, Moon (2009:126) maintains that experience alone does not guarantee learning but rather requires self-initiative, “intention to learn” and an “active phase of learning”. Contact with other languages affords students the opportunity to know and value different cultures, understanding other points of view. The IB, therefore, requires schools to place importance on mother tongue, host country and other languages by holding all teachers responsible for student language development (IBO, 2010). Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) was the pragmatic, pro-active approach to language learning which emerged across Europe and rapidly grew through the 1990’s in mainstream education. Marsh (2002) believed it to be the socio-pedagogical adaptation to Europe’s border-free context. The transdisciplinary nature of the PYP aligned to the proposals of CLIL. Though Alfaya et al. (2009) did not see a commonly used term for it in Spain, legislation specified areas to be taught in particular languages within its context. The modes comprised of teaching in Spanish jointly with a co- official language (that is, Catalonian, Galician) or jointly in one. The first mode meant integrated, simultaneous or bilingual teaching of two foreign languages. The second mode consisted of learning integrated curricular content in the specific languages of the Autonomous Communities specified under the Linguistic Standardisation Acts 1982/1983 (as they are not adapted to students’ real knowledge. Rather, teachers should create and use their own materials, noting that these are needed for all subjects taught in the additional language. Coyle et al. (2010) acknowledges the uncertainty many teachers feel about CLIL, because language, subject knowledge and assessment should address attainment of the additional language as well as subject content learned. To overcome this uncertainty, in-service teacher training is promoted by education authorities for all teachers of foreign language, irrespective of their specialization. In 2004/05 the Department of Education launched a pilot bilingual Spanish/English CLIL project to reach 110 publicly funded pre-primary and primary schools dispersed throughout the Autonomous Community of Madrid. This project specified participation in international projects and exchanges, not unlike evidence looked for in the promotion of international mindedness in the IB.
Murtagh (2012) identified key themes in successful program implementation that included the need for focused pre-service training and continuing professional development. Schools must comply with IB professional development requirements by guaranteeing teachers and leaders receive IB-recognized training, which address both levels, at authorization and evaluation (IBO 2010). IB-recognized professional development is defined as “Activities listed on the IB events calendar on the IB public website (http://www.ibo.org) or in-school professional development activities organized by the relevant IB office.” The requirement is meant to ensure compliance with the program’s objectives. Professional learning communities (PLCs) can also provide opportunities for professional growth. These are characterized by an environment that fosters cooperation, emotional support, personal growth, and a synergy of efforts (Dufour and Eaker, 1998). Glickman (2002) believes that teachers cannot improve their craft in isolation from others. Fixsen et al. (2005) found peer coaching and consulting, another form of collaboration, as the most effective vehicles to prompt change in teaching practice.
Danielson (2007) and Marzano (2007) support the systematization of professional development where observation is part of the process. Hattie’s (2009) “microteaching” focuses on reflection with teachers as a professional development strategy to drive change. This reflection on observed practice in videos proved to have a great effect on teaching behaviors that did not diminish over time. A similar practice is currently used by Coyle with teachers in the Bilingual Schools project in Spain (Coyle et al., 2010).
The Spanish Ministry considers in-service training a right and obligation of all teachers. In-service training falls under the auspice of the Education Administrations and schools. In-service training programs adapt knowledge and teaching methods to trends in education including specific methodologies, aspects of coordination, guidance, tutoring, attention to diversity and organization in order to enhance the quality of education and the functioning of schools.
Inquiry is the leading pedagogical approach of the IB. The descriptor of this attribute in the IB Learner Profile mentions natural curiosity, acquisition of skills, independence, enjoyment and love of learning (IBO, 2009). Banchi and Bell (2008) address four levels of scientific thinking to guide teachers in an understanding of student progress in a developmental continuum of inquiry. These are supported by Bell et al. (2005) where the amount of teacher guidance and information provided to students varies per the level of inquiry needed. Inquiries can be done individually, with a partner, or in small or large groups. They go beyond the units of inquiry to touch subject areas (IBO, 2009:4).
Discussion promotes critical thinking inherent to inquiry. Bangert-Drowns and Bankert (1990) showed that open, unguided inquiry fostered critical thinking most powerfully in those cultures where student thinking was not previously valued. Schwab (1960) identifies two main components of inquiry: Materials and discussion. Discussion allows the learner to clarify or further question thinking. Lindfors’ (1999) “inquiry acts” support this. Contrasting the inquiry approach, Hattie (2009) suggests that the most direct and active methods of teaching appear to be optimal for achieving the construction of conceptual knowledge.
The antecedents of inquiry based learning are found in the constructivist learning theories and works of Piaget, Dewey, Vygotsky and Freire which in the 1960’s became known as the discovery learning movement. Bruner, often credited with originating the movement, notes that "Practice in discovering for one self teaches one to acquire information in a way that makes that information more readily viable in problem solving" (Bruner, 1961:26) A continuous cycle of building, testing, confirmation or modification of personal models of how the world works is undergone in the search for meaning. Vygotsky defined learning as "the creation of meaning that occurs when an individual links new knowledge with [...] existing knowledge" (Mann, 2012). Two of Coll´s (1990) fundamental ideas surrounding the development of constructivism align to the IB:
1. The student is ultimately responsible for their learning.
2. The role of the teacher is to guide and counsel students in their process of constructing knowledge.
In planning, existing knowledge must be verified and students provided with experiences to check and revise their models, establish relationships and create their own meaning. Olson (2003) in Hattie (2009:241) states, “it is the students themselves, in the end, not teachers, who decide what students will learn”. Boix-Mancilla and Gardner (1997) argues that constructivism should change the way curriculum is taught allowing teachers to relate knowledge students already have with their individual learning styles in the context of new experiences.
Schwab (1960) noted the need for scientists to move away from their love of facts and pushed for them to try new conceptual patterns. The essence of teaching science was coverage and his worry about knowledge obsolescence drove him to promote the use of simple guiding concepts. He felt materials for student inquiry should provide varying perspectives to look at a problem through the eyes of the different disciplines. Erickson’s (2008) work on conceptual lenses amplifies this. She coins the term to explain how a macro concept forces thinking to a more concrete level of integration allowing patterns and connections to surface across broader frames of study. Without this, she claims, study reverts to memorization of facts and superficial understandings. Erickson (2012:6) notes the importance of attending “to both the key concepts and more disciplinary-specific related concepts to ensure that students develop breadth and depth of conceptual understanding”.
Approaches to learning (ATL), originally the PYP transdisciplinary skills, were recently adopted across all IB programs (IBO, 2014). These skills; social, communication, thinking, research and self-management skills are relevant to all learning. They not only transcend the boundaries of subject areas but also life, in and outside of school. The European Union and the Ministry of Education have identified eight basic competences which align explicitly or implicitly to the former PYP transdisciplinary skills (that is, linguistic competence, social competence, autonomy, knowledge acquisition, and learning to learn). Others are incorporated under disciplines (that is, mathematical and artistic competence). Variable student groupings support not only inquiry in the classroom but the opportunity to develop and use these transdisciplinary skills. When students work with a partner, in small or large groups, they engage in situations requiring communication, social and self-management skills. Ford (2005) notes that no one grouping pattern is bad but the exclusive use of one may lead to problems in the classroom. Valentino (2000) notes flexible grouping can make a teacher’s job easier and students more productive. Grouping should not only consider those led by teachers but those led by students, giving them greater voice in metacognitive processes. The frequency of these opportunities ensures more independence when activating and transferring the use of these skills.
Kompf and Bond (2001) quote Dewey in Barer-Stein and Kompf (2001) "successive portions of reflective thought grow out of one another and support one another", creating a scaffold for further learning, in support of constructivism, to allow further experiences and reflection. Kolb (1984) cites Freire’s (1973) work on praxis or the reflection and action upon the world to transform it. Freire states, “Men are not built in silence but in word, in work, in action-reflection (pp. 75-76).” He explains the concept of word as work or praxis and notes that it has two dimensions beyond dialogue, one of action and one of reflection. He notes that when a word is not authentic it contorts one of these dimensions, sacrificing the other. If action is compromised, reflection is just chatter. If reflection is compromised, action leads to activism, negating dialogue. It arises explicitly in the IB action cycles but is seen in the IB learner profile attribute of reflective. The descriptor addresses metacognition and assessment, “They (students) give thoughtful consideration (to) their own learning and experience. They can assess and understand their strengths and limitations to support their learning and personal development” (IBO, 2009b). Reflection is a tool not only to move students toward taking responsibility for their learning but also as an assessment method.
Evaluation is an essential part of all teaching and learning processes. Schools are expected to develop evaluation procedures and practices that reflect the philosophy and objectives of the PYP which are then documented in an Assessment Policy. Hattie (2009: 28) cites studies by Biggs and Collis (1982) and Brown (2002) where a student’s measure of success is surface knowledge acquisition and a teacher’s goal is usually deep learning outcomes. Boyer (1995) notes this difference in the curiosity of young children versus the query of older children as to whether the information being addressed “will be on the test”. It is therefore imperative that teachers guide students carefully and effectively through different forms of appraisal, formative as well as summative; process as well as product. To know where students are in the process, records of pre- assessment are important to assess the extent to which the depth of understanding and knowledge have increased. Teacher feedback should become a tool to provide incentive to improve. Although the approach legislated for classroom assessment in Spain is global and continuous, there are compulsory end of first and third cycle national exams. The exams address curricular areas of mathematics, natural, social and cultural environment, and Spanish language. Results of these exams are made public, ranking schools in tables from highest to lowest overall average scores. These are also used in school inspections (CIDE, 2008).
Specific to the PYP are its transdisciplinary framework, corresponding components and the attitudes. The concept of a transdisciplinary inquiry-based curriculum was first raised in progressive education. Nicolescu (1996) notes going beyond multi and interdisciplinary teaching in the works of Piaget, Morin, and Jantsch. His manifesto on transdisciplinarity translated by Voss (2001) sees uniting knowledge to reduce fragmentation and dichotomous thinking; the goal being greater human consciousness about the present world. Nicolescu, however, was concerned that the term may be used to legitimatize decisions without really creating change. The PYP transdisciplinary framework (Program of Inquiry) arose from Boyer’s (1981) suggestion to organize curriculum on core commonalities of human experience rather than subject disciplines.
The essential elements (concepts, knowledge, skills, attitudes and action) are components of transdisciplinarity. Boyer (1995) mentioned the need to gain understanding beyond subjects, implying a focus on concepts. The PYP is comprised of eight key concepts meant as a research tool to unlock knowledge. They shape the inquiry around a big (central) idea through lines of inquiry which suggest further questions to explore. The planner is used as a tool to organize each unit. Knowledge is balanced between these human commonalities and the disciplines. The transdisciplinary skills, now ATLs, and action are part of all IB programs. This leaves PYP attitudes. Together the IB Learner Profile attributes and PYP attitudes define a curriculum based on values. Although the OECD (2005) defines competency as more than knowledge and skills by drawing on attitudes, the transfer into the Spanish national curriculum defined the contexts in terms of subject disciplines, leading to repetition. As a stand-alone entity, attitudes are seen transversely in the PYP creating a more global view.
Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid (CAM) assessments are administered to 4th and 6th grade students, with a trial for 2nd grade students currently in place. The results of these exams are published in national press (MEC, 2013). While the PYP is not against standardized testing, its main objective for assessment is to provide information on progress in the learning process. “The PYP assessment approach recognizes the importance of evaluating both the process and the results of the inquiry, and seeks to integrate and support both” (IBO 2009: 44).
As models, the attitudes support students’ reflection on their own metacognitive set of values in a variety of contexts. The PYP considers these as “habits of mind” that inform curriculum decisions, impacting the learning environment and personal interactions within it (IBO 2009: 24).
Lauder (2007: 442) suggests the implementation of the PYP, including the socio-cultural factors impacting teaching and learning, is “still in its infancy”. Given the significant role of leaders and teachers, the implementation of the PYP depends on positive working relationships between these two groups.
As social inquiry is influenced by a variety of sources at many different levels to investigate a given problem, the mixed methods provided the tools to address these. Although prime importance was given to the research questions, the diverse approaches gave value to both objective and subjective knowledge. The strength of the qualitative analysis in this study for inductive or theory-development driven research lies in the systematic review of documents used in program implementation. As these emerged over a given timeframe, the data supported an understanding of the process and provided detailed information about the setting and context. This study involved intensive case studies at six schools in one group of schools and a single national context. Non-probability accidental sampling was used as schools were conveniently part of a group of schools’ implementation project. The use of case studies as part of the qualitative approach emphasized the perspectives of the participants and provided greater depth in understanding the different aspects of the investigation.
The strength of the quantitative analysis in this study for deductive research lies in gathering descriptive and comparative information in order to measure variables and yield numeric data that provide statistically founded relationships. This data has the potential to establish probable cause and effect, generalizations across populations and provide insight into a variety of experiences. The quantitative analysis was applied to data collected from two interrelated questionnaires: one for the teachers’ perceptions of difficulty on various aspects of the program and a second for the leaders’ perception of how difficult they felt the aspects were for the teachers.
The non-experimental, mixed method research comprised of both a qualitative and a quantitative framework. The interpretive paradigm of the research offered an opportunity to understand and decipher the complexity of the schools’ contexts. The combination of objective and subjective perspectives offered by the qualitative document analysis and the quantitative survey instrument served to describe the challenges of program implementation in the schools involved.
Documents for the qualitative analysis included: Feasibility studies, application forms, preliminary visit reports, school action plans, studies of parent satisfaction surveys, professional development plans, records of development (program of inquiry, units of inquiry, assessment tools), and authorization reports.
Definition of documents
1. Forms A and B: The January 2003 version of Form A and the 2. September 2006 revised version of Form B were submitted. The two application forms are comprised of ten areas to complete, all but the tenth area being the same. These ten areas include:
i. Contact details (school addresses)
ii. School information (year founded, legal status, type of school, academic structure, number of students, ages, school size, and other IB programs offered)
iii. PYP area information (number of classes, organization of classes, nationalities of students, languages offered, Mother Tongue provision)
iv. School planning and support (reasons for implementing the PYP, formal decision by governing body, consultation with other sectors, identification of responsibilities, PYP training received, collaborative meeting facilitation plans, time frame for all staff training)
v. School infrastructures (nature of school, special facilities including library and ICT)
vi. Teaching personnel information (number of full and part-time PYP teachers, support staff, subject coordinators, single subject teachers, nationalities, meeting times, PYP document availability, responsibilities for hiring)
vii. PYP Coordinator information (name, responsibilities, non-teaching time)
viii. Finance and planning (fee payment, strategic planning, PD funding)
ix. Resource management (library staffing, budget, centralization, classroom libraries, inventory per language-general reference, fiction and non-fiction, newspaper and periodicals, loan arrangements; computers available, IT staffing, IT resources, Mother Tongue resources, PD resources)
x. Implementation of the program. This section differs between Form A and Form B.
a. Form A asks for the approximate date of submission of Form B as well as the development of a 3 year action plan.
b. Form B asks for the action plan as well as a reflection on and description of the school’s current situation in relation to each of the IB Standards. Lastly it asks schools to comment on how the teaching and learning at the school contribute to the development of the IB Learner Profile attributes as well as what PYP implementation give to the school and local community.
1. Given that the Schools belong to a group of schools, Form A was filled in at Institution level with the help of the PYP Coordinators in the Schools. In contrast, Form B was filled in by the PYP Coordinators first then reviewed at Institution level.
2. IB Reports: The formats of the IB reports include a description of the school addressing and summarizing information provided in all but the tenth areas of Forms A and B after checking for evidence that verifies the data. As with Form A, the Preliminary and Authorization Reports also had institutional similarities that the visitors kept repeating. The IB facilitated the service of the visits to try to coordinate more than one visit within the same dates, taking advantage of the same visitors. Given that there are very few IB visitors who speak Spanish in the International Baccalaureate Africa, Europe, Middle East (IBAEM) region, the IB needed to find personnel who may not have had the language level necessary to do the visit or they looked to the International Baccalaureate Americas (IBA) region for help. The first situation led to final oral reports given, at times, in English with a Spanish translation. This report also submitted to the IB Regional Office in English took some time to translate into Spanish. The second situation led to greater costs in order to bring visitors over from Latin America. Either situation could be improved by training more Spanish speaking visitors in the IBAEM region for these responsibilities.
3. Parent opinion survey: Schools administered surveys at the end of the school year to determine parent satisfaction on the school programs in general. Items on the parent opinion survey seem more aligned to Spanish inspectorate needs rather than those of PYP implementation. Schools chose which items to send to parents. Parent participation was voluntary and varied from school to school and year to year.
In an attempt to improve the surveys, the Education Quality and Regulation Department (Departamento de Calidad y Regulación Educativa) changed the format over the years. In 2009-10, the format was changed to a scatter graph. In 2011-12, the items changed to align more to the changing needs of the schools. School 2 used the results from the parent survey run by Endicott College for CIS accreditation. Aligning these results to previous years was subjective; therefore, the surveys have been analyzed among schools and within schools, trying to overcome the difficulty of not being exactly the same survey. The results are provided in the general document analysis as well as the document analyses for each of the Schools.
A coding system was devised to compare the documents between and across Case Study Schools. Themes for the codes followed the prescribed sections of the IB Standards and practices and categories aligned with fundamental elements of the program. The initial coding scheme was revised and refined with the analysis of the documents of each School. The codes used to categorize the information from the documents generated the headings or outlines to categorize the Case Study Reports. Individual Case Study Reports for each site were then written up using the coding document. These in turn were used to write the final overall Case Study Interview Report.
Data collection for the six Case Study Schools was conducted over the period of time when the implementation process, application and authorization levels took place, which was from June 2007 to December 2012. Documents were gathered throughout the program implementation process as follows: In the Consideration phase, the Schools were organized into two implementation groups. A feasibility study was carried out to identify resources that supported the process as well as possible deterrents in line with the IB philosophy and standards and practices. A Preliminary Visit was organized to report on the findings of this study. Schools received relevant PYP publications and a PYP coordinator was designated in each school. IBO-approved training for the PYP Coordinators, school leadership teams, as well as teachers was programmed. Schools also arranged to visit PYP authorized schools in the IBAEM and IBA regions. Around the time of the preliminary visit, preparation of Form A and supporting documents was underway. Application fees were rendered by the finance department of the institution.
Once schools completed the consideration phase, they were then authorized to implement the PYP over a trial period. During this time, schools needed to undergo further training, beyond the introductory workshop. The Department of International Programs oversaw which to offer and made necessary arrangements for the schools. It should be noted that the IBAEM Regional Office offered the first workshop in Spanish, The Written Curriculum, in March 2008 to support the further training needs for the Schools. Schools began curriculum development. PYP Coordinators and PYP School leadership teams met in Madrid to begin the preparation of the program of inquiry and first units of inquiry. School leadership teams were given unofficial training in PYP Pedagogical Leadership to better understand scheduling needs, in particular, ensuring horizontal and vertical collaborative planning sessions. These teams were made aware of the paradigm shift they were about to take in relation teaching methodology, materials and assessment. Parent support was necessary and, given the cultural background, moving away from single texts and number grades was going to be a challenge. The Case Study Schools give institutionally posed opinion surveys to parents called the “Voz del Cliente” (Voice of the Client) supporting this regulation. The Departamento de Calidad y Regulación Educativa (Education Quality and Regulation Department) at the University of Camilo José Cela (UCJC) provided data from these surveys, starting with the 2007-08 academic year, when the PYP began, and ending with 2011-12 when all schools had undergone the full process. Information from each Case Study School was pulled in relation to its implementation, though, in all but one case, the relationship was not explicit. School leaders looked to the PYP coordinator’s handbook for guidance on the roles and responsibilities of the new position in the organizational structure. As PYP Coordinators took on these functions, they increased their understanding of the making the PYP happen manual to support teachers. They received access to the OCC (IB online curriculum center) and solicited and distributed passwords for it to all staff, encouraging them to enter into the platform to access other PYP documents and join in discussion forums.
Given the scope of the schools’ implementation under the umbrella of one group, the Department of International Programs decided to undergo a pre-authorization consultation visit for one school then determine the need for the others. The IB Regional Office left it to the discretion of the Institution whether this visit was deemed necessary. As with all visits, the timing was at the discretion of the regional office in consultation with the school. Once again, application fees were rendered by the finance department of the institution.
Final phase school visits were arranged through the IB Regional Office with input on dates from the schools. The Form B applications and submission of documents proved favourable and the visits and follow-ups of these took place. At the end of the visit, the visitors gave an oral report of the findings. These were summarized and shared across the Institution by the Department of International Programs.
A comparative review of the documentation was carried out to analyze the stages and level of difficulty of different aspects of the PYP implementation process within and across Case Study Schools using the codes developed. The review took place from January 2013 to March 2013.
The quantitative survey instrument was developed over the period of May 2012 to March 2013. The instrument was developed for two stakeholders: School leaders and teachers. The first addressed the school leadership team (directors, principals and coordinators) and was designed to collect information about their perception of teachers’ need in the IB PYP implementation process. The second addressed the classroom and specialist teachers and was designed to collect information about respondents’ knowledge and level of perceived difficulty related to the IB PYP implementation process. The two interrelated online surveys were aligned to the IB Standards and Practices (IBO, 2009) as this was the reference for regulating the implementation of the PYP at the time of the study.
A preliminary survey was sent to PYP Coordinators in July 2012 for their input on relevance and clarity of items. This survey looked at both questionnaires simultaneously to facilitate the process and asked for open comments. The input from the PYP Coordinators was positive and no changes were made on this first draft.
In December, this draft was sent for validation to university professors from Spain, USA, UK and Cuba with expertise in research methodology, the IB and the PYP to assess the clarity and relevance of the items. Three of the professors were PYP experts, two were PYP knowledgeable, two were IB program knowledgeable and four were research methodology experts. Their input was gathered from January 2013-March 2013. The instrument used for validation rated relevance (whether the question is significant for the information it is designed to gather) and clarity (in writing, language used, and expression) using the following scale: The criterion for validating items was decided as follows:
1. Those items that at least one expert rated as 0 in relevance were excluded.
2. Items with scores of 2 and lower in clarity were reworded.
3. Items with more than 40% in ratings of 0 and 1 for relevance or clarity were excluded.
4. Those items with an average less than 2 for relevance and clarity were excluded.
5. All suggestions given to reword, combine or add items were taken into consideration.
The feedback given proved all items relevant to the study. However, there was an obvious lack of clarity related to both ratings and the way the questions revolved around “understanding”.
The only item that did not meet the validation criteria for relevance was “To what extent do the teachers understand the principles of international mindedness.” It should be noted that two evaluators omitted validating the item. No explanation was provided for the omission in either case. A comment was made concerning whether international mindedness was a “principle”. International mindedness is a very significant concept in the PYP and was not removed because of this feedback but rather incorporated into the question on overall philosophy of the IB in the second draft.
Based on this input, the questionnaire was refined. Comments from the validators explained that determining a percentage of teachers was subjective as the word “understanding” is impossible to measure. As these items did not meet the validation criteria, they were removed from the survey instrument.
The second concern expressed by most of the validators was that the survey addressed cause rather than effect. Again, asking participants to judge their understanding was seen as subjective. The wording of the questions and the ratings needed to be rethought. Comments from one of the PYP experts gave rise to investigating the difficulty of each of the items in the implementation process rather than understanding. The ratings were revised accordingly and became: 1. Very difficult; 2. Somewhat difficult; 3. Somewhat easy; 4. Very easy.
Finally, the questions addressed a range of curricular areas of implementation that carried no organizational structure. Likewise, a comment was made on the inconsistency for ensuring “understanding” and “use” of various aspects of the curriculum. Another comment led to adding a section addressing classroom organization, that is, grouping strategies, use of space, time and resources. The questions were rethought, organized and sections devised related to familiar curriculum components, incorporating these suggestions.
In consequence, the following eight sections were developed for a second validation: General personal information, The International Baccalaureate (IB) in general, The PYP in general, The Written/ Planned Curriculum, The Taught Curriculum 1 (teaching), The Taught Curriculum 2 (classroom organization/ infrastructures), The Assessed Curriculum, and Global Assessment of Curriculum components.
Cronbach’s alpha was used to measure the internal consistency for the sections and determine correlation values. Table 1 shows the results of the findings.
Although the personal information in section 0 was validated, a few changes were made from comments given. The name of the participant was removed to ensure anonymity.
The second draft of the survey instrument was sent out to another set of international experts for validation. These included three of the same professors who validated the first instrument, one a PYP expert and two experts in research methodology as well as two new experts, one knowledgeable of the PYP and the other a PYP expert.
An on-line survey method was used to increase accessibility for the collection of quantitative data. Although there were almost 60 items presented, the format of the questionnaire was kept simple in the hope that teachers and leaders could complete the survey in less than 15 min. An email was sent to Directors in April 2013 seeking permission to carry out the survey with teachers through the PYP Coordinator. A letter was provided to PYP Coordinators as a suggestion of how to present the survey to the teachers. The first request was sent in April but the greatest number of responses was received at the end of the academic year. Response was checked weekly to track participation and reminders sent to schools accordingly.
In early June, it was observed that the participation rate was relatively low. A follow-up email was sent to directors with copies to sub directors of learning and development and the PYP Coordinator to encourage more participation; the survey remained active. During the June 2013 PYP workshops, participants were further encouraged to fill out the questionnaire. Survey data collection ended for this study July 31st. A total of 30 responses were collected for the leaders’ survey and a total of 124 responses for the teachers’ survey. When the closing date had passed, data from the online platform was downloaded as an Excel file as well as the graphs and percentages provided by the survey instrument. The analyses were run from September 2013 to November 2013 using tests in SPSS version 20. Descriptive and comparative analyses were run on the quantitative data. Descriptive analyses included percent response, calculated means and frequencies. The comparative tests used included: T Student Test of independent samples, ANOVA for one factor, the Levene test of homogeneity of variance, Welch, Games-Howell, HSD of Tukey and the Mann-Whitney U Test for independent samples. Results of the items were calculated for all participants then broken down by leaders and teachers to analyze the descriptive and comparative differences.
Population and sample
The quantitative investigation took place across six private Spanish national curriculum schools belonging to three autonomous communities and one institution. Subjects included a sample of 114 full-time teachers from a population of 255 and 23 leaders comprising directors, principals, coordinators and heads of department from a population of 44 among these schools. Teachers and leaders from the schools were involved in the investigation on a voluntary basis. Classroom teachers and specialists were included but only those who taught full-time. The human resources department provided data for the number of teachers in the PYP for each school in the 2012-13 academic year. The choice of leaders was left to the discretion of each school in line with their organizational structure. Some overlap was seen where more than one person held a given post over the years of implementation. Leaders may hold more than one position depending on the needs of the school. Directors may retain responsibilities of sub direction. PYP Coordinators may also be area coordinators and in School 1 hold the post of a sub director. Leaders may also have teaching responsibilities. The current leader for each school was filtered into the analysis of the data where appropriate. Table 2 provides an overview of the population and sample from this study.
Although the results of the research are favourable in relation to ease of perception of most fundamental aspects, perceived differences between teachers and leaders arose across Section A, the IB philosophy and specific items, namely the roles of inquiry, transdisciplinarity, action, scope and sequence documents and language policy. Similarly, differences in perception were found in use of a variety of assessment tools and strategies; reflection on the planner; planning student use of transdisciplinary skills and attitudes; student use of the IB Learners Profile and transdisciplinary skills; and student understanding of the central idea and lines of inquiry.
Documents analysed provided the first set of inputs for each of these. Relating to aspects of Section A-IB philosophy, preliminary reports refer to the alignment of the schools’ philosophy with that of the IB and the continuation of the IB programs in Schools 2, 3 and 5 strengthen this. All preliminary reports showed the governing body of the institution committed to the implementation of the program. Authorization reports reiterated this alignment for all schools. Concern was raised that School 1’s administration needed to further their understanding of the philosophy and teaching. Parent survey reference to the educational system encompassed the IB expectations. On a 10-point scale, parent value never dropped below 7.74 and was as high as 9.27 showing its importance, though less so in some schools than others. The range of overall satisfaction was from 6.87 to 8.90. Form B question 10d, asked schools to comment on how the teaching and learning contributes to student development of the IB Learners’ Profile attributes. Most schools gave a general description of curriculum inclusion, teacher modeling, and variety of opportunities. School 1 outlined how each attribute was met. Parent survey reference to educational principles can be seen as those values that drive the mission and vision of the school seen in the learners’ profile. The value never dropped below 8.57 and was as high as 9.80. The range of overall satisfaction was from 7.28 to 9.10. Authorization reports encouraged schools to continue to promote the attributes throughout the school community. CIS accreditation reports for Schools 3 and 4 proposed deepening an understanding of international and intercultural awareness beyond a market driven product. Parent value given to international program never dropped below 8.57 and was as high as 9.80. The range of overall satisfaction was from 7.28 to 9.10.
International mindedness as reflected in additional language acquisition arose in related comments about the language policy. For the most part, schools initiated the development of these at administration level, usually involving language and PYP Coordinators. As matters to be addressed, Schools 1 and 2 were asked to revise their language policies to clearly align with the PYP perspective on language teaching, learning and evaluation whilst ensuring all stakeholders share the beliefs and values expressed there. School 6 was commended for the importance given to the co-official languages and introduction of two additional languages in Primary. Schools 2 and 6 were asked to consider how the co-official and additional languages fragmented the learning process. Language policies were not used in coordination meetings observed.
Parent value given to language learning never dropped below 7.39 and was as high as 9.90. The range of overall satisfaction was from 6.00 to 9.00.
Preliminary reports for Schools 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6, noted more teacher-directed activities were observed than student initiated ones. Form B for School 1 identifies an understanding of inquiry particularly related to the subjects of Mathematics and Spanish language learning as a difficulty encountered. Visits to schools corroborated this. Where the planner asked for evidence of student initiated inquiries, most reiterated activities suggested by the teachers. Authorization reports for all schools comment on the need for a deeper understanding of inquiry across all subjects and for all teachers. Unofficial workshops promoting inquiry in Mathematics were given to address the issue early in the implementation process. Authorization reports recommended that Schools 1, 2, 3 and 4 promoted inquiry in the subject disciplines which showed a continuing need in this area. Parent value given to teaching strategies never dropped below 7.54 and was as high as 9.50. The range of overall satisfaction was from 7.04 to 9.10. CIS accreditation reports for Schools 3 and 4 noted the need for greater student voice. Meetings and schedules showed the effort made by schools to adjust to a transdisciplinary model. Preliminary reports of Schools 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 mentioned fragmented timetables. Teacher time was blocked for teachers across bilingual and trilingual models. The PoI transdisciplinary framework was developed at institutional level with PYP Coordinators from all schools. Authorization reports for all schools made concrete suggestions to improve, that is, ensure all teachers’ constant participation, address international mindedness, articulate vertically and horizontally, integrate disciplines and watch for appropriateness. In developing this first draft, conceptual understanding was determined the most difficult aspect to
address because of cultural dissonance. Preliminary reports for Schools 1, 2, 3 and 5 refer to a focus on skills rather than the development of conceptual understanding.
Authorization reports recommended that all schools perfect the Units of Inquiry (UoIs) in the PoI, specifying certain components, that is, perfecting central ideas to develop the transdisciplinary theme and allow inquiry. Authorization reports reminded schools about identification of key concepts, lines of inquiry and exploration through multiple perspectives. Authorization reports for all schools commended the easy access to planners in an electronic format supporting collaborative planning. Schools 1, 3 and 4 were advised that all teachers use the planner as the only process for planning and that all stages of the planner be completed. Schools 3, 5 and 6 were asked to refrain from using the planner for documenting the learning of skills and knowledge that were not implicit in an inquiry. Preliminary reports of Schools 1, 2, 3, and 5 noted that teachers had limited experience in the practice of reflection. In addressing a revision of the planners, Schools 3, 5 and 6 were asked to ensure documentation of understanding, knowledge and skills pertaining to disciplines within the inquiries developed.
Preliminary reports noted the lack of teachers’ experience in the development of curricula in all schools. Form A for Schools 1 and 2 noted adapting curricular contents to the PYP curriculum framework as a major difficulty. Forms B for Schools 1 and 2 continued to see it as a concern. Curricula were developed over the summer months by teachers chosen by school leaders at institutional level then passed on to all schools. Curricular areas of the PYP were carefully aligned to the legislated changes as they came into effect (Portellano, 2008b). Development did not involve all staff. UoIs developed were checked for content knowledge addressed by law. Parent value given to learning basic subjects varied greatly between infant and primary parents. It never dropped below 6.20 and was as high as 9.88. The range of overall satisfaction was from 6.86 to 9.00. The authorization reports asked schools to ensure scope and sequence documents were coherent with the expectations of the PYP and written for each subject area.
Form A for School 5 mentioned the need for more books in the library. Using manipulatives and developing resources to reduce text use was a challenge. Preliminary reports to Schools 1, 2, 3, and 5, mentioned lack of a library, limited literature collections and the need for subject area additions representing a variety of cultural perspectives. Preliminary reports for all schools mentioned textbook dependence as an obstacle. Schools 1 and 2 were asked to make manipulatives and artifacts accessible to students. School 5 mentioned the need for more international resources. Preliminary reports for Schools 1, 2, 3 and 5 mentioned ICT resources supported implementation. Form B for School 1 mentioned amplifying the computer room. Acquisition of resources was systematically planned in 2007 by the Department of International Programs (DPII) to address the needs. Form B for Schools 1, 3, 5 and 6 mentioned enabling the library and increasing materials. School 1 still saw the use of different textbooks difficult. The parent value given to resource materials never dropped below 7.33 and was as high as 9.33. The range of overall satisfaction for this area was from 6.19 to 9.60. The parent value given to cultural visits never dropped below 7.60 and is as high as 8.96. The range of overall satisfaction for this was from 7.83 to 8.73. Results were only for Infants. The authorization report for School 1 recommended as a “matter to be addressed” that the library be recognized and used to support implementation of the PYP and for School 6 that the librarian’s workload be revised. The authorization report for School 3 asked for a move away from textbook reliance.
Other considerations regarding resources for implementation included physical space, its use and different aspects of time. Both the Preliminary Report and Form B for School 6 noted classroom size and distribution as obstacles. School 1 noted the reorganization of space to meet the needs of the program in Form B. Authorization reports for Schools 4, 5 and 6 suggest the use of a single room to integrate learning experiences rather than having students move from a Spanish to an English classroom. It was recommended that all schools use learning centers, meaning changes to space for differentiated grouping. Kagan cooperative learning workshops took place in all schools providing a range of tools to group students for different purposes. Grouping was observed more often in UoIs than subject specific classes
Time was the most valued resource. Form A for all schools stated how collaborative meetings would be facilitated. Mostly schools commented on team and departmental meetings, only School 4 specified times. Preliminary reports for all schools mentioned the lack of time for collaborative planning. In Schools 1, 2, 3 and 5, concern was expressed in relation to teacher time used for supervision and extracurricular activities that could be made available for planning and reflection. Time to reflect also needed to be ensured in Schools 1 and 6 as per their reports. Form B for Schools 2, 3, 5 and 6 showed the disposition of time for collaborative planning as a continued difficulty. School 5 was very clear that time was an issue for planning and developing a concept-based curriculum with fewer texts as well as incorporating specialist teachers into planning sessions. Authorization reports for Schools 1, 2 and 6 asked leaders to guarantee all teachers time for reflection and planning as a “matter to be addressed”. In some cases, the schools were asked to systematize planning, to ensure other responsibilities did not interrupt.
Form A outlined the PYP coordinators’ non-teaching time and responsibilities. This ranged from 5 hours teaching time to 10 periods, with and without Tutor group responsibilities. In School 3, it was left vague and School 4 touted another leadership post. Authorization reports of Schools 1 and 2 asked to ensure the resources, including time, necessary to carry out the roles and responsibilities of PYP coordinator as a “matter to be addressed”. The School 6 report was more direct, stating the PYP coordinator’s time be increased.
Preliminary reports for Schools 3 and 5 identified constructivism as supporting the bid for candidacy. For Schools 1, 2, 3 and 5 they also noted assessment practices focused more on skill acquisition. Required for the Spanish Ministry, schools developed assessment policies. authorization reports recommended that Schools 1, 5 and 6 deepen their understanding of assessment’s role in planning and teaching, ensuring tools and strategies were recorded and appropriateness reflected upon. Schools 1 and 4 were also asked to ensure their Assessment policy addressed the beliefs and values of the PYP, addressed summative and formative assessment, registered and reported on the essential elements as well as student development of the attributes of the learners’ profile. More importantly it asked that the philosophy be seen in practice. School assessment policies began to show evidence of the variety of tools and strategies being used.
Although, by law, assessment is continuous, national exams still focused on results based on content knowledge. Schools 1, 3 and 5 tracked these results. Form B in School 6 mentioned the difficulty of moving teachers from results-based to process-based assessment. It also mentioned lack of student work displays as evidence of learning. Informal visits to the schools supported the need to display more student work. Authorization reports for Schools 2, 3, 4 and 6 recommended summative assessments allow for understanding of the central ideas. All schools were cautioned that conceptual development be addressed and acknowledged in practical ways.
Report cards were tailored to allow for students, parents and teachers to reflect on the learning process within the units of inquiry. Authorization reports commended the schools on their reports noting that they communicated progress as well as outcomes. The parent value given to reports never dropped below 6.92 and was as high as 9.28. The results of satisfaction across School 2 were 9.59. Authorization reports for Schools 5 and 6 noted the need to see the portfolio as a tool for learning that reflects progress.
Authorization reports reminded Schools 2, 5 and 6 that the objective of learning is the understanding of concepts. Authorization reports for Schools 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6 referred to the need to deepen an understanding of action as the outcome of learning and put the action cycle in practice. Schools 2 and 3 were asked to record spontaneous, student initiated action. Schools 2 and 4 were asked to facilitate student initiatives. The workshop on action in the PYP was provided officially in Spanish in IBAEM for the first time in February 2012. The number of participants was minimal. A few schools sent bilingual teachers to participate in the Action workshop in English at the Regional workshops in Lisbon in 2008
Form B for School 6 noted that one of the difficulties encountered was changing the teachers’ philosophy about education. Participation in IB official workshops were meant to support this. Attendees were usually chosen by the school leadership teams, at times training the same personnel rather than spreading the training amongst staff. School leaders were given samples of rotational plans to use as a support to ensuring equity of participation. The parent value given to teacher preparation and training never dropped below 7.83 and is the only item that reached a maximum of 10.00. The range of overall satisfaction was from 7.46 to 9.20. Workshop offers were made by the DPII based on perceived need from school observations, feedback from the preliminary reports and conversations with leaders.
Assessment and methodology were the two Category 2 areas with the most difficult paradigm shifts becoming the focus for training after introductory workshops. Schools were encouraged to send bilingual teachers to PYP regional workshops outside of Spain. Unfortunately, the number of Spanish monolingual teachers in the schools necessitated official professional development in their native language. Although three teachers were sent to a workshop in Buenos Aires, financing was much greater issue than attending workshops in the IBAEM region. Workshops offered in Spanish increased to meet demand. At the IBAEM’s March 2008 PYP workshops in Lisbon, 41 participants came from the case study schools. Twenty-five of those attended the first PYP Spanish Category 2 workshop offered in the region. Only two participants in this workshop were not members of one of the Case Study Schools.
Acknowledging this, and the financial effort made, the IB PYP Regional Director suggested that the institution investigate offering IB In-Cooperation workshops. Category 1 workshops were maintained to ensure all new teachers were trained prior to authorization. In June 2009, the first PYP IB In-cooperation workshop in Spanish was offered (assessment in the PYP). The Department of International Programs registered 70 participants from the Case Study Schools. The following year, a second PYP In-Cooperation workshop in Spanish was offered (teaching and learning in the PYP). The Department of International Programs registered 105 participants from Case Study Schools. The Regional Office, realizing the extent of professional development needed, approached the Institution to suggest it become an IB Official Professional Development Provider. The first contract was signed in 2010. Finding dates for the workshops was difficult. Teachers did not want to give up vacation days and leaders did not want to take days off the school calendar. Category 3 workshops were introduced in June 2012. In June 2013, subject specific inquiry workshops were offered in response to difficulties seen. The workshops were well attended but schools began looking for other ways to support professional development. Authorization reports for Schools 1, 2 and 6 suggested planning opportunities be used to question pedagogy and develop professional learning experiences.
In Form A, School 5 commented on the need to clarify roles and responsibilities. This arose in the preliminary reports for Schools 1, 2, 3 and 5. Roles and responsibilities of all positions are found in the ‘Reglamento de Regimen Interior’ though schools adapted these in line with the PYP Coordinator notes and PYP Pedagogical Leadership manual. Schools outlined in Form B question 7bi, to varying degrees of specificity, the responsibilities of the PYP Coordinator. In Form B, Schools 3 and 6 noted the diverse changes that took place in the leadership team during the trial implementation. In the six-year period of implementation several changes were made in PYP coordination. School 6 was the only one not to undergo any change and School 5 remained stable through the PYP implementation process. School 3 was on their 5th PYP coordinator as of the 2013-14 school year.
Authorization was granted to four of the Case Study Schools, three of which were required to submit reports on “matters to be addressed”. Authorization was postponed for two of the Case Study Schools and a return visit was required. The IB regional office revoked the return visit requirement for one school after the submission of the follow-up report. At the end of the study, all schools were moving into the next evaluation phase, School 2 being the first to undergo the process and visit in October 2013. This visit, organized by the regional office, was to take place three years after receiving the authorization; however, as schools were caught in IB changes, some visits were put on the four-year cycle. Self-evaluations were planned in Schools 1 and 4 for 2013 as the process needed to be underway six months prior to the visit. Some schools adjusted the process so that one multiple program visit could be made by the IB delegation rather than a series of individual program visits.
While the documents analysed highlighted some areas of difficulty, it was the quantitative comparison that emphasized significant differences in perceived difficulty of program implementation between teachers and leaders. Table 3 provides an overview of the number of significant results from this study across all schools and individually. Table 4 identifies seven items perceived by teachers as easy and leaders as difficult, listing these from greatest to least mean difference as given by the descriptive and comparative analyses. This split in teachers’ (T) and leaders’ (L) perceptions of difficulty are presented as items where leaders underestimated teachers’ perceived difficulty of implementation. The column to the far right gives the significant p for the difference in each item. The table shows three items perceived as significantly easier for teachers than leaders. Table 5 identifies items perceived by teachers as difficult and leaders as easy. Splits where a teacher finds something difficult but a leader expects them to find it easy resulted in seven items of leader overestimation in the descriptive analysis. Items, listed from the greatest to the least mean difference, show the split in teachers’ (T) and leaders’ (L) perceptions of difficulty. The column to the far right gives the significant p for the difference in each item. The table shows three items being perceived significantly more difficult for teachers than leaders.
The last significant result between these teachers and leaders arose as shown in the Table 6. Both groups perceived using a variety of teaching/learning strategies as easy though teachers perceived it as significantly easier than leaders.
On a positive note, the study showed alignment of perceived difficulty between teachers and leaders for 45 of the 59 items. Of these, 26 items were perceived as difficult and 19 were perceived as easy by both groups. Table 7 gives an overview of the perceptions of difficulty between teachers and leaders across all sections. The only section in which perceptions differed across all items was Section A: IB philosophy.
The investigation also showed various instances of leaders being completely split amongst themselves as a group as well as areas where teachers were completely divided in perceived difficulty. The areas in which teachers felt confident were those items with ratings over 2.50 and receiving a greater than 50% response. These items were identified as demonstrating positive self-efficacy. These are found in Table 8. Contrarily, the areas in which teachers felt uncertain were those items with ratings under 2.50 and receiving a greater than 50% response. These items were identified as demonstrating negative self-efficacy. These are found in Table 9.
The greater the percentage, the closer the agreement among teachers. The closer items were to 50% response, the greater the divergence in perception of difficulty. Items highlighted in Table 8 present the highest rating of all items in that section or the items perceived as easiest. Items highlighted in Table 9 present the lowest rating of all items in that section or the items perceived as the most difficult.
The mismatch in teachers’ and leaders’ perceptions of difficulty could lead to problems in supporting the needs of teachers for personal professional development and consequently improvements in teaching and learning throughout the school. Leaders’ overestimating or underestimating need can lead to disappointment on the part of either the teacher or the leader and emotional undercurrents that may undermine unconditional positive regard between individuals. Section A, the IB philosophy, resulted in being the only overall section where teacher-leader perceptions did not align. Its abstract and elusive nature (Halicioglu, 2008) and non-specificity (Gigliotti-Labay, 2010) may, in part, explain this; however, per documents analyzed, the IB philosophy aligned with the Institution’s and Schools’. Therefore, differences in perception are best explained in the ratings of its components.
Inquiry was a prevalent issue across all subjects and teachers in documents analyzed supporting Ozer’s (2010) study. Teachers’ perceived understanding of its role may not translate into practice which may have led to the leaders’ perception of difficulty. Not all levels of inquiry (Schwab, 1960; Banchi and Bell, 2008) were observed. However, the highest rated item in teacher self-efficacy was use of different stimuli for introducing inquiry. It was evident that teachers had a relatively high degree of instructional freedom supporting Pinto (2005). Positive self-efficacy was also seen in related items, that is, understanding the role of the program of inquiry, and putting into practice teacher questions, student inquiry in the Units of Inquiry and guiding students in self-initiated inquiries (IBO, 2009). While the latter were not observed in documents analyzed, the increased participation in workshops addressing inquiry may have led to the desired results. This may not have been perceived by leaders.
Policy development as seen in the documents analyzed was a top down process with little teacher input explaining leaders’ ease in perception. Language policies were not communicated with nor used by teachers to build ownership so their perception of difficulty is understandable supporting Chance (2009). Concepts were perceived as difficult across both sectors. All related items appeared in the list of negative self-efficacy for teachers including identifying key and related concepts, writing central ideas and lines of inquiry, understanding the role of concept-driven curriculum and guiding students in making connections between the central idea and transdisciplinary theme. Documents analyzed showed cultural dissonance and posed challenges (Drake, 2004; Lee et al., 2011). IB reports continually referenced the need to deepen understanding. However, when put into practice, that is guiding students to an understanding of the central idea and lines of inquiry, teachers demonstrated a degree of positive self-efficacy. Leaders not directly involved in classroom practice perceived these as difficult. Constructivism was perceived positively in document analysis and survey results; however, Coll’s (1990) fundamental ideas about student responsibility for learning and teacher facilitator in constructing knowledge were not observed in documents analyzed. This was evident in the Section F, Assessment. How the curriculum was being taught (Boix-Mancilla and Gardner, 1997) was still being developed. Specific to the PYP, mismatch in perceived difficulty in Section B revolved around the role of transdisciplinarity and scope and sequence documents. Teachers were engrossed in implementing the program of inquiry and corresponding units. Their first-hand experience with it may explain their perceived ease with its role. Leaders on the other hand, being caught up in the legalities of curriculum alignment and parent perceptions, may have developed a concern as reflected in their perceived difficulty. The balance of disciplinary and transdisciplinary work arose frequently in the documents analyzed, supporting Venville et al. (2009) with parents having a better understanding of the “basics”. Documents showed that, as in policy development, this was a top-down process. Leaders’ perceived ease with scope and sequence documents is related as they also had a greater investment in their development.
Addressing the planned or written curriculum, difference in national curriculum expectations led to perceived difficulty in planning student use of transdisciplinary skills, attitudes and reflection on the planner. Teachers’ first-hand experience again contrasts that of leaders’ second-hand accounts. The understanding of transdisciplinarity in language acquisition when responding to the CLIL movement, especially in Case Study Schools in Andalusia, Catalunya and Galicia, may have complicated teaching in developing the modes (MEC, 2013). Although the Spanish Ministry moved toward competency based learning and the introduction of attitudes (MEC, 2007), it had not yet impacted practice. Leaders may have perceived both these changes as easily implemented reflecting their rating. The difficulty seen in planning student use of attitudes paralleled teachers’ perceived difficulty in promoting students’ daily use of the IB Learners’ profile attributes. Lastly, written curriculum documentation in Spain was not prescribed but in the PYP, planners needed to be developed with stages unfamiliar to teachers. Documents showed the lack of culture in reflecting on practice. Other areas of the planner and just the practice of developing them was foreign to all teachers supporting Twigg (2010). Leaders not directly involved in completing them may not understand the difficulties that arose. Some of this was related to ensuring time for their completion.
Teachers’ and leaders’ perceived items in infrastructures as easy for the most part. Although Beane (1996) saw these as challenges, financial solvency and investment made the difference. Time as a resource was the one item in that section perceived by both groups as difficult.
Assessment in Section F was perceived by both groups globally as difficult. Mismatch arose in relation to the use of a variety of assessment tools and strategies. Documents analyzed showed improvements in the development of assessment policies and reporting. Workshops focused on assessment early into program implementation. While some national curricular expectations supported assessment practices in the PYP and Gu’s (2010) culturally relative approach, national exams and league tables were obstacles. Student-led conferences, giving voice to students, rated lowest on negative teacher self-efficacy. It was evident that teacher prior knowledge was lacking (Pinto, 2005; Powell and Anderson, 2002). Action, an assessment as the outcome of learning, was perceived as difficult by leaders. Documents analyzed showed action did not exist as part of the Spanish national curriculum. Workshops were offered to support an understanding of this essential element. While planners did not evidence action, teachers’ work with it led to a greater understanding of its role in the PYP. Action service, as advocated by Berger-Kaye (2004), may allow students to further develop transdisciplinary skills, IB attributes and PYP attitudes, but teachers were cautioned that fundraising as action service limited personal growth and commitment. Indices conceptualized by Hofstede (2008) could explain how values in the workplace are influenced by independent preference. Although Hofstede and Minkov (2013) warn that the “…dimensions do not directly predict any phenomena… [as]… there is no quick fix to understand social life”, he does say “the dimensions, when well understood, do allow to predict a little better what is likely to happen.” Therefore, the study takes on a lesser dimension in addressing schools rather than countries in the hope of being able to make inferences in comparison to the results. That said, although the context of this study is Spain, it is of interest to look at Hofstede’s findings for other Spanish-speaking countries, especially those showing interest in the International Baccalaureate programs like Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador and Mexico. Table 10 shows results from Hofstede’s work for these countries across the two dimensions. When the index is small, the PDI or UAI is weak. When the index is large, the PDI or UAI is strong. While Spain shares some cultural history with countries in the Americas, the results of Hofstede’s findings show independent preferences across them vary less in relation to the Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) than in the Power Distance Index (PDI). In relation to the UAI, with the exception of Ecuador, the countries chosen show a preference to avoid confronting change and the personal stress it may entail. Their populous is less likely to take risks or place themselves in ambiguous, undefined situations than they are to choose paths that are stable and diminish future concerns. They are less likely to want to take control preferring rules that regulate any given situation. However, if those rules make life too complex, they are also avoided.
The PDI, however, showed particularly high scores for Mexico and Ecuador where society is perceived more strongly as hierarchical with the inequalities inherent in this kind of organization. People accept this order as well as being told what to do by the boss with no questions asked. Argentina and Spain are closer to the middle where less powerful members of society are not as likely to expect or accept the unequal distribution of power. How might this translate to the Spanish Case Study Schools and the findings? Splits where the teacher finds something easy but leaders perceive it as difficult may infer an underestimation on the part of the leader. Hofstede’s findings in relation to a high Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) would suggest that Spanish teachers may unquestioningly accept decisions their leaders made. Teachers with a high Power Distance Index (PDI) may equally accept being told what to do thus leading to maintaining the status quo. The result would be no vested interest in creating change or supporting innovation, having teachers become every bit the underachievers they find so frustrating when seen in students. As Paskavich said, “I admit it in school I was an underachiever and it was so easy to do (GoodReads, 2014).” As Michelangelo said, "The greatest danger for most of us is not that our aim is too high and we miss it, but that it is too low and we reach it (GoodReads, 2014)."
In any case, it can be inferred that leaders in this situation are probably faced not only with teacher disinterest but also unnecessary spending of funds when, for example, chosen professional development does not meet a real need. Teachers confident in items of high self-efficacy may accept the leaders’ judgment and participate in rather than lead related training.
That said, if an individual’s UAI and the PDI are low, the teacher may question the decision of the leader to address other interests and areas in self-perceived need of personal professional development that may not align with the leaders’ expectations. These teachers are often perceived to be contentious. Chomsky noted that the system “weeds out” those who “do not know how to be
submissive” when he said:
“The whole educational and professional training system is a very elaborate filter, which just weeds out people who are too independent, and who think for themselves, and who do not know how to be submissive, and so on because they're dysfunctional to the institutions (GoodReads, 2014).”
These same teachers may run into conflict with their conscience if compromising their beliefs in order to appease the leader. Would not it be far better to support these teachers as leaders in their own right supporting Edison when he said, “If we all did the things we are really capable of doing, we would literally astound ourselves…(GoodReads, 2014)..” Or confirming Collini where “A different voice may be particularly effective in disturbing the existing participants into re-examining matters they had come to take for granted (GoodReads, 2014).” School leaders should consider using teachers confident in items of high self-efficacy to support those who need a better understanding of these.
On the other side of the spectrum, items perceived by teachers as difficult and leaders as easy can be inferred to be leaders’ overestimation of teacher capacity. Leaders, who may themselves feel more comfortable with these items, should attempt to discover why their perceptions differ, then lead discussions to promote moving staff and individuals forward. If not, caution should be taken not to discourage or judge teaching professionals when uncertainty is high. Judgments can crush attempts at addressing areas perceived as difficult. As the Roman poet Ovid (43 BC-18 AD) said, “A new idea is delicate. It can be killed by a sneer or a yawn; it can be stabbed to death by a quip and worried to death by a frown on the right man’s brow (GoodReads, 2014)." High UAIs and PDIs ensure teachers follow along with the leaders’ initiatives; however, this blind acceptance does not support modeling critical thinking, which is fundamental to deep change and innovation. Low UAIs and PDIs may support this critical thinking if leaders allow for free exchange of ideas and critical discussions. Hassan (2010) suggests 20 phrases that kill innovation. In discussion with teachers, leaders should refrain from using these in order to provide support for initiatives in areas where perceived difficulty is high. One of these phrases which comes up in education settings often and should be refuted, especially by leaders, is: We’ve never done it that way. Leaders should consider how to best support teachers in areas new to them like reflecting on the planner, as well as planning student use of the transdisciplinary skills and PYP attitudes. Dialogue with teachers could prove insightful as to the different possibilities: Formal and informal professional development opportunities, sharing across schools, across grade levels, providing dedicated time, etc.
Implicit in developing shared understandings would be a guarantee by school leaders that stakeholders are rating the same thing. For example, do they all agree on the definition of inquiry, concepts, international mindedness or transdisciplinarity? Do they agree on what these look like and where they are evidenced in planning, teaching and assessing? They should share and critic their own examples and non-examples. Teachers and leaders should reflect on readings and observations of practice to determine that they are rating the same outcomes. As much as possible, these should be backed up with essential agreements, procedures and policies. Through the development of shared definitions, policy and practice, balanced perceptions can be more easily reached.
Agreement is important not just between teachers and leaders. On items showing complete splits in perceived difficulty within groups of leaders and teachers, introspection is necessary. Leadership teams need to discuss first where their own perceptions do not align before approaching staff development. Misalignment amongst leaders may lead to giving mixed messages to staff and confusion regarding expectations. This introspection can be taken on first by leaders then between teachers before moving on to the differences between the two groups. Documents analyzed demonstrated lack of clarity in leaders’ roles and responsibilities. If a strong leadership team is crucial to supporting teachers (Hall et al., 2009; Riesbeck, 2008), surely the first step is ensuring clarity in these.
The good news is that there was alignment of perceived difficulty between teachers and leaders for 45 of the 59 items. Sections on PYP fundamentals, teaching practice and teaching infrastructure were perceived easy in general where items in sections on the written and assessed curriculum difficult. Many of the difficulties can be attributed to cultural dissonance. Although the number of items perceived as difficult (26) was greater than those perceived as easy (19), the alignment of items perceived difficult should allow for agreed upon support systems between teachers and leaders for moving forward in their implementation and school improvement.
Bennis notes that “Leadership is the capacity to translate vision into reality” (GoodReads, 2014). That reality will take place more efficiently and effectively if the perception of those visions are shared or at least understood across teachers and leaders in school settings. This is especially true in countries like Spain where the Uncertainty Avoidance Index is high and for those individuals in schools who perceive greater Power Distance. Schools should take time to develop tools to determine perceived need across stakeholders. These tools may be surveys or self-assessments. Personal professional development procedures could be used in the identification and follow through. Comparisons of these perceptions to better understand the constituents can then lead to differentiation of professional development, the creation of concrete professional communities including book share and peer coaching. By sharing the results and providing appropriate and timely personal professional development, possible repercussions of mismatch may be avoided regardless of the culture to which one belongs.
The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.
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