The National Fadama Project in Nigeria is financed by World Bank, the African Development Bank and the Nigerian Government (Gourichon, 2013; Ani, 2014). This agricultural development project has an intention of increasing   the   incomes   of  Fadama  land  users  on  a sustainable basis and reduce their poverty level (Ogunlela and Ogunlela, 2008; Afolabi, 2010; Effiong and Asikong, 2013). The project is designed to be a participatory and socially inclusive approach that empowers  the  farmers,  to  take  control  of and manage their resources for their own development (NFDO, 2007; Ani, 2014).

Data collection

The study was carried out by survey through the instrument of flexible semi-structured interview survey. This was employed to elicit information on sorghum farming activities, awareness of  pests and diseases on sorghum farms and level of practice of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) by the respondents. A total of four hundred and eighty five questionnaires were purposively distributed by the assigned Fadama office facilitators to the respondents from 10 Fadama development areas in the six Area Councils. The number retrieved was 480 copies that is 48 questionnaires per development areas and used for data collation and analysis. Questionnaires prepared were test run and administered to randomly selected groups and clusters in the six Area councils namely Abaji, AMAC, Bwari, Gwagwalada, Kuje and Kwali. In addition, personal observation on sorghum field was employed. An accurate geo-referencing coordinate and mapping of sampling points or selected sites and area of mass infestation/infection were carried out between November – December 2018, using GPS MAP 76CSX, (2001) manufactured  by Garmin International Inc. USA. Such GPS allowed for the visitation of the same location next time and can help to manage more persistent disease problems.

Insect pest collection and identification

For farm insect sample collection, live specimens were captured by using nets for flying insects. For other insects, a cup or margarine container was placed over the insects and allowed to crawl in. They were then safely picked up and covered with lid or paper towel. The insects caught were then immediately placed in ≥ 95% ethanol or rubbing alcohol (isopropyl). Each of them was labeled with date, location, and your name. They were then placed in freezer and stored at -20°C until ready for proper identification in the laboratory and insect museum in the Department of Crop Protection,  Ahmadu Bello  University, Zaria. The insects collected were classified into order using an on-line identification key or cereal insect pest identification manual.  Miscope attached with a computer was also used to sort insects into morphospecies (Tuzun, 2010).

Sorghum disease assessment

Sorghum samples were assessed to check if they have disease, any abnormality such as discoloration, spots or holes on the leaf, if the plants are smaller than usual or if parts of the plant are dead, if the plant has holes, spots or discoloration in the stem or in the panicles/grains. Diseased samples were collected with sterile sharp knife and identified with hand lens and camera for taking close‐up digital photos before being compared with crop diseases identification manual. Pests infested and diseased sorghum samples were collected from the sorghum farms by the engaged field technologists.

If symptoms or signs cannot provide enough specific or characteristic information to decide the cause of an infectious disease on sorghum, samples were taken to the laboratory for further tests to isolate and identify the causal agent.  Equipment such as microscope, autoclave and identification manuals for cereal crop diseases and weed were used for confirmation (Federico et al., 2015).

Pest and disease incidence

Pest and disease incidence were visually rated on at least three spots in a farmer’s field or store visited. Percentage incidence was calculated as the number of infected crop stand over the total number of crops stands sampled as indicated in formula (i) as used by Ogolla et al. (2019):

Sorghum cropping practices in the FCT

Higher percentage of the farmers planted improved sorghum varieties (92.50%) while the rest 7.50% planted local varieties (Table 2). Major varieties of sorghum planted were Samsorg 47, 48, 53, 58 and kaura inuwa and this were mostly planted in the month of July every year. Up to 93.17% of the respondents sourced their Fadama programme and just 6.83% from other sources. Majority  of  the  farmers (67.56%) do plant their sorghum in July (Table 2). It was indicated that only 34.73% of the farmers cropped their sorghum farm from fallowed field in the previous year. As high as 65.60% of the farmers planted sorghum in the previous year on their present farm. This implied that most sorghum farms were cropped in the previous years.  Weaver and quela bird was serious pest on sorghum farms located near a river or a forest. The high prevalence of anthracnose and leaf blight diseases and midge insect pest often led to low panicle formation and reduced yield but most farmers were not aware of this. This might be due to lack of awareness among farmers and inadequate extension agents (Sylla et al., 2019).

 

 

Indigenous knowledge used for managing sorghum pests included coating or spraying of leaves with goat faeces slurry on the field and   use of neem and Blumea leaves in corn granaries. Sorghum seeds were locally dressed with   wood ashes, fukai and gwaska extracts, Christmas berry bark exudate, neem extract + pepper before planting; also tobacco powder and ordeal tree leaf/bark powder were used for seed coating. Striga weeds were locally managed with locust bean extract, delayed planting and crop rotation and intercropping sorghum with millet. The efficacy, development and usage of indigenous knowledge of crop and diseases management should be encouraged and their efficacies confirmed.

Challenges to sorghum production

Majority (47.50%) of the respondent farmers considered cattle/herdsmen menace as the most problematic pests on   their   farm   (Figure  2).  Weeds  were  rated  first  by 46.67% of the respondents. There is no doubt that weeds are important problems in crop production fields and the respondents were knowledgeable about the adverse effects of weeds as reported by Banjo et al. (2010) and  Abang et al. (2014). Other problems including diseases of sorghum were rated first by only 18.33%. This perception showed that diseases such as sorghum anthracnose, despite their pathological importance, are seldom recognized as so by the farmers, possibly due to ignorance.

 

 

Pests, diseases and weeds of sorghum in the FCT

The incidence of pests, diseases and weeds and mean % yield reduction associated with sorghum is as shown in Tables 3 to 5. In terms of pest identification, all farmers in most sites were able to identify stem borer and shoot fly larvae when shown a picture. Although farmers in Yaba Abuja could identify the ‘’small insects‟ that fly around the panicle during flowering and also could easily identify the symptoms of midge damage, they could not differentiate the two.

 

 

 

 

Major insect pests and diseases identified on sorghum in the FCT

Some common insect pests and samples of sorghum with diseased symptoms in the FCT are shown in the infographics below. Army worm (Plate 1) is sheltered in the axils of plants and their larvae feed and damage young plants.  Faecal pellets, damaged and chewed leaf margins were signs of damage. Ching bug (Plate 2) resides in grassy weeds and moves to seedling plants. They attach sorghum and feed on the stem and large leaf veins and sometimes lead to wilting and stunted growth and can kill seedling. The high prevalence of anthracnose disease and midge insect pest often lead to poor panicle formation and low yield. This is associated with lack of awareness among farmers and inadequate extension agents.

 

 

 

Moth (Helicoverpa armigera) larvae (Plate 3) do feed on the pollen sacs in the flower and feed on developing seeds. The corn root worm - (Diabrotica virgifera) (Plate 4) often feeds below the soil line, can cause wilting of seedling and lead to retard growth of the plant. The sorghum midge - Stenodiplosis sorghicola (Plate 5) eggs hatch and feed on immature seed, and could hamper development of seed kernel.  Stink bugs (Blissus leucopterus) were found on developing sorghum ear on Nomadic farm in Bwari (Plate 6). Anthracnose of sorghum (Plate 7) is caused by Colletotrichum graminicola and has small, circular to elliptical spots on leaves and leaf sheaths. Older spots have greyish or straw coloured centres with reddish borders and bear black acervuli. The mid-rib infection occurs as elliptical to elongate, discoloured lesions which may coalesce to cover the entire length of the midrib. The use of host plant resistance and crop residue management on the farm is recommended (Pande et al., 2008). Plate 8 shows a loose smut of sorghum on a farm in Sheda Kwali Abuja; it is also found in Gwako Gwagwalada Abuja. The grains are replaced with black powdery materials (sori), while Plate 9 depicts Striga hermonthica flowering on Sorghum in Kwali FCT, Abuja. Plate 10 shows the rust disease of sorghum where rust pustules (uredosori) appear on both surfaces of leaf as purplish spots. The pustules may also occur on the leaf sheaths and on the stalks of inflorescence.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Status of integrated pest management (IPM) of sorghum in the FCT

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has emerged as a way towards maintaining or increasing crop productivity without over-reliance on synthetic chemical pesticides (Aktar   et   al.,   2009;   Abrol,   2013).   Out  of  the   nine management strategies indicated by  the respondents, only  the management of sorghum seeds/grains insect pest  had high awareness with about 71% adopters while none of them was aware of management of the leaf blight and anthracnose diseases (Tables 6 and 7). Anthracnose and leaf blight diseases were the common diseases of sorghum in the FCT, but most farmers left such disease uncontrolled either due to ignorance or due  to  their  cost implication. In order to appropriately recommend pest management practices on the field or in the store, a well detailed information about farmers’ awareness and management strategy of pests and diseases is necessary in fashioning more programmes that would aid the actualization of the objectives of the Fadama III Programme (Balogun, 2013).