Bamboo taxonomically belongs to the family of poaceae having about 90 genera and 1,500 species in the world (Desalegn and Tadesse, 2014). Despite being a grass, they still have woody stem or culm that can reach 15-20 m in height, even 40 m in some environments (Assaye et al.,  2013;   Desalegn   and   Tadesse,   2014).   Highland bamboo (Yushania alpina) can appear in the altitudinal range of 2200-3500 m above seas level. It normally grows in warm and humid environment (average annual temperature of 10-20ºC and annual precipitation of 1000- 2000 mm) and is commonly found in Africa (7%), Asia (65%) and Central and South America  (28%)  (Brias  and Hunde, 2009: Assaye et al., 2013; Desalegn and Tadesse, 2014; Tinsley, 2015). Africa holds 1.5 million ha of bamboo vegetation (Kelbessa et al., 2000).

The natural bamboo forest in Ethiopia is the largest in Africa, around 1 million ha (about 67% of African bamboo resources) covered by bamboo (Assaye et al., 2013). Two indigenous species of bamboo in Ethiopia, highland bamboo (Yushania alpina) and lowland bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica A. Rich Munro) are scattered in the south, south-west and central parts of Ethiopia which encompasses four regions, namely Benishangul Gumuz, Oromia, Southern Nations and Amhara (Kelbessa et al., 2000; Kassahun et al., 2015). Highland bamboo comprises 130,000 ha (13.3%) while lowland bamboo constitutes 850,000 ha (86.7%) (Embaye, 2000). Lowland bamboo is an indigenous bamboo to Ethiopia and endemic to tropical Africa (Embaye et al., 2003).

Bamboo is one of the world’s most important non-timber forest products (NTFPs) since; it is a superior wood substitute, cheap, efficient, fast growing (up to 91cm per day), and it has high potential for en­vironmental protection and wide ecological adapta­tion (Mekonnen et al., 2014). It has diverse socio-economical (goods), environmental and ecological importance (services) at local, regional, national and global levels. When bamboo is well managed, harvested and if proper market linkage is created, it gives basic household income, which is also a means to reduce poverty and encourage rural development (Tinsley, 2015). There are over 2.2 billion people worldwide benefiting from bamboo through income generation and non-market domestic uses including food and housing (Tinsley, 2015). On the same author, over 1500 distinct uses of bamboo have been recorded around the world, and the number is growing rapidly with new development and innovative initiatives. Traditionally bamboo is used extensively in handicraft, making of chopsticks, blinders, mats, carpets, and furniture but its true market potential is in industrial processed products like flooring and panels (Melorose et al., 2015a). Different modernized bamboo products have been innovated; and are excellent substitutes for timber-produced materials mainly in China, India, and west­ern countries. The properties of bamboo such as resilience, shape and strength makes it an ideal material for construction purposes (Melorose et al. 2015b; Truong and Le, 2014). It is also used for housing, crafts, pulpit, paper, panels, boards, veneer, roofing, fabrics, oil, gas, charcoal (for fuel and as an excellent natural absorbent), and also a healthy vegetable (the bamboo shoot). Bamboo industries are now thriving in Asia and are quickly spreading across the continents of Africa and America (Loboviko  et al., 2007). 

There are enormous challenges and constraints for bamboo development, expansion and national utilization. Among such problems, usually observed are; lack of clear bamboo conservation and utilization policies (Lobovikov et al., 2007), agricultural area expansion  (due to population growth and increased food demand), insecurity of land tenure right, ecological and environmental impact of bamboo, lack of economic incentive (Brias and Hunde, 2009), low awareness creation to value as useful commodities, less market demand and weak markets linkage on bamboo and its products, and low access to infrastructure (Embaye, 2003). However, the existing challenges and the actual socio-economic contributions of highland Bamboo in Bibugn District of East Gojjam have not been studied. This study was initiated with the objective of contributing to address the knowledge gaps through identifying the socio-economic significance of highland Bamboo and the associated challenges for its expansion.

Study area description

Location of the area

The study was conducted in Bibugn District, East Gojjam zone, Amhara National Regional State of Ethiopia. It is located at 381 km away from Addis Ababa (capital city of Ethiopia) and 83 km from Debre Markos (capital city of East Gojjam). The district lies between the coordinates of 11º00'N and 12°24'N latitude and 34^o70'E and 37º35'E longitude. The district has 308 square kilometer (30879 ha) total land coverage. It also covers 3.8% of East Gojjam zone (Yared, 2014). Bibugn is bordered on the south by Sinan, on the west by the west Gojjam Zone; Degadamot district, on the northwest by Goncha, and on the east by Hulet Eju Enese. Towns in Bibugn include Woyinwuha, Waber and Digotsion (the center of Bibugn district). There are 19 sub-districts (which are the smallest administrative units) in Bibugn District (Berhanu, 2014; Alemu, 2014)(Figure 1).

Bibugn District encompasses parts of Choke Mountain which is the upper source of Blue Nile River. From a total of 12160 ha of Choke Mountain, Bibugn District covers 2855 ha of this highest landscape (Belay, 2013).

Population

The district has a total population of 82,002, of whom 40,190 are males and 41,812, females (Berhanu, 2014). Numbers of inhabitants in urban and rural areas are listed in (Table 1).

With an area of 308 square kilometers, Bibugn has a population density of 205.11 persons per square kilometer, which is greater than the Zone average of 153.8 persons per square kilometer. Regarding their religion, the majority of the inhabitants (99.13%) practiced Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity ( CSA, 2007; Berhanu, 2014).

Climate and soil type of the area

As the district covers larger areas, there are also several agro-climatic regions. These are; low-altitude areas (locally called, kola) (4.46%), mid-altitude areas (WoinaDega) (48.06%), high-altitude areas (Dega) (35.5%) and very high-altitude areas (Wurch) (11.95%) (Yared, 2014). Bibugn has a mild climate and its altitude range from 1820-4088 m above sea level. Its average daily temperature is  moderate,  mean  annual precipitation is about 1200  mm and has uni-modal rainfall regime starting from June to September. About 18,935 ha of land is covered with annual crops and 3058 ha is covered with forest. The soil type in the area is classified as; 44.55% red in color, 14.9% black color, 35.11 % brown color and 5.44% gray color (Berhanu, 2014).

Distribution of bamboo in Bibugn District

Based on the information obtained from district agricultural development office, Bibugn encompass around fifteen rural sub-districts and four urban sub-districts (two of them are sub-urban districts). From fifteen rural sub-districts of Bibugn district, five sub-districts are below 2300 masl, and the remaining ten sub-districts are above 2300 masl. Highland bamboo (Yushania alpina) is cultivated only on ten sub-districts and from these; five sub-districts (namely; Ded Iyesus Abo, Debretsion, Bibugn Genetemaryam, Debrezeit Kuchit and Gedeb Giorgis) have the potential for bamboo coverage as compared to other sub-districts of the district. But, the other sub-districts or sub-districts (the remaining five sub-districts from   highland   sub-districts)   have  rare  bamboo  cultivation  and production potential, and hence cannot adequately satisfy the people’s need for bamboo utilization. Five sub-districts from the district namely; Amba, Moseba, Digo Kanta, Debresina, and Genamemicha do not practice highland bamboo cultivation. Highland bamboo covers 451 ha in the district. Lowland bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica) has been grown rarely in this lowland (five sub-districts) of the district. But its area coverage in ha has not been well known (BWAO, 2016).

Debrezeit Kuchit sub-district is more prominent by highland bamboo cultivation and utilization as well commercialization on market level. It covers 74.96 (50.4%) ha in the sub-district against other three sub-districts (Table 2).

no= (z² *p (q))/d²     n1₌ no/(1+no/N)

Where; no = desired sample size when population greater than 10000, n1= finite population correction factors less than10000, Z = standard normal deviation (1.96 for 95% confidence level), P = 0.1 (proportion of population to be included in sample i.e. 10%), q =is 1-P i.e. (0.9), d = margin of error (0.05)

N= is total number of population.

Based on this formula, there were 135 total sample sizes from four sub-districts.

Data types and methods of data collection

The study used both quantitative and qualitative data from both primary and secondary sources. Quantitative data include; total area coverage of bamboo in ha on individual respondent’s land, cash income users get annually, and qualitative data collected include the cause of bamboo coverage reduction, which challenges or problems mainly influence expansion of bamboo, and for what purposes they use bamboo resources. Primary data were collected by using observation, semi-structured questionnaire and key informants interviews. Secondary data such as total area of highland bamboo coverage in a district and sub-district level, distance of each sub-districts from the market, and description of the study area were collected from different books, documentary sources, annual reports, internet and district administration office.

Data analysis

All data obtained from the semi-structured interview, key informants and observation were organized and analyzed by using descriptive and inferential statistics. Analysis of descriptive statistics was displayed in chart or tabulation expression and those expressed in frequency and percentage. Inferential statistics were also used to reach conclusions, and to infer from the sample data about what the population looks. SPSS version 20 and excel 2016 were used to put data in percentage and frequency using tables and figures. Pearson correlation was applied to test whether there is a relation or not between area of bamboo and landholding size of the respondents, transaction of bamboo and distance from the market. Chi-square test was also used to test relation among categorical data such as demographic characteristics and  bamboo  cultivation, and challenges identified by respondents.

Highland bamboo cultivators in the study area

There were 82 (60.7%) cultivators and 53 (39.3%) non cultivators of highland bamboo from total sample respondents. Statstically, there was no significan relation (P > 0.05) between highland bamboo cultivation and demographic characterstics. It shows that cultivation of this vegetation is not determined by demographic characteristics because dwellers in the study area receive or confiscate bamboo forest resources from their former parents or ancestors.

Socio-economic importance of bamboo in the study area

Highland bamboo in the study area   ranked as the second advantageous plant (17% of the respondents) next to Eucalyptus globulus (55%) based on frequency table of sampled respondents (Figure 2).

The study indicated that people in Bibugn District use highland bamboo for different socio-economic purposes (including domestic use and commercial purposes). Therefore, importance of bamboo can be categorized in to two; domestic uses (direct uses) and commercial uses. The continuous decline of forest resources requires the use of non-timber materials such as bamboo in many structural and non-structural applications previously dominated by wood. Bamboo products can be safely used in the application of furniture, interior paneling, flooring and parquet.

Bamboo for domestic uses

Respondents during the study stated that the various domestic or direct uses of highland bamboo include use for house construction (usually hut), indoor utensils, fence, rattan, flooring, rope, basket, kitchen, scaffold, weaving,   firewood,  leaves  for  mud  fixer,  mulching  for nursery bed, lash, leaves for animal feed, tube for water translation (gutter), flute, mast, broom, and walking sticks. This result was in line with the study conducted by Kelbessa et al. (2000)and Daza (2013) which showed that bamboo culms in Amhara Region are used as construction material for housing, fences, and beehives in the sub-districts. Many of the landless men buy bamboo from farmers and engage in producing mats, and baskets (Figure 3).

Based on key informants and household survey results;- highland bamboo used mainly for house construction (39%) followed by basket (22% of respondents). According to Mekonnen et al. (2014)findings, up to 2014, over one billion people throughout the world were estimated to be living in traditional bamboo houses and Ethiopia is a good example. Because of poverty, most rural dwellers are enforced to use bamboo for traditional hut construction.

One   of  the  uses  of  bamboo  which  is  called  house flooring has become preferable in Bibugn District. Bamboo flooring is a relative new application to our community. It is strong, moisture resistant, comfortable, easy to clean, beauty, resilient and an excellent choice for bathrooms and kitchens. Bowyer et al. (2014)also reported as bamboo has been used for flooring coverage and become significantly increase internationally since this product is undeniably attractive, with a hardness rating comparable to most hardwoods that makes it a green choice. Besides using for house and flooring, bamboo is also beneficial as firewood and wood replacement. Nowadays, the torture of women for firewood searching is decreasing since bamboo has been planted on individual resident’s land. This makes bamboo to be utilized as major substitute of wood for rural and urban dwellers in Ethiopia. Indirectly, it is also important for minimizing deforestation of timber forests. The major characteristics of bamboo which makes it preferable are;- cheap and fast growing. Other domestic products or goods made from bamboo which are significantly important includes;- cereal and crop collector, mat, bed, bee hive, basket (the most use of bamboo in the study area next to house construction) and rope.

Bamboo as source of income /commercial use

Highland bamboo and its products also have great contribution as source of households’ income. It has been sold in the form of raw bamboo, basket, mat, woch (local names) and other house-hold goods. The annual cash income obtained from highland bamboo products transaction is presented in Table 3.

In Bibugn District (four selected sub-districts), there were 82 cultivators and 53 non cultivators of high land bamboo that covers about 1489 ha of land. From those sub-districts, Debrezeit Kuchit has better coverage of highland bamboo which was 74.96 ha and the least was recorded on Ded Iyesu Abo which was 5.66 ha. In the study area highland bamboo was used mainly for house construction, flooring, baskets, house utensils, fence, rope and shading (bed) for nursery site. It was also important for maximizing household income. The total annual income obtained from selling of highland bamboo and its products in the study area was 51,050 ETB and the mean income of the sampled sub-districts per individual was 378 birr which is very low level of highland bamboo transaction performance relatively. On the other hand, there were major challenges and constraints for its expansion, such as low awareness of the community, less market demand, insufficient land and higher market demand for eucalyptus. People in the study area prefer cultivation of eucalyptus to bamboo plant.

Based on the findings; the following recommendations are forwarded:

1) Coordination of government and people is essential for bamboo plant expansion, rational utilization, and adoption of new technologies regarding bamboo processes.

2) Agricultural and other experts should provide awareness on multiple benefits of bamboo and should give training on how bamboo can be rocessed to value addition beyond usual utensils, household goods and furniture.

3) Market chain and linkage should be established and strengthened.

4) Further research is recommended on bamboo leaf influence on soil fertility reduction.

The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.