Perceived freedom in leisure, which is a reflection of the leisure components in the preparation of adolescents with intellectual disabilities for adulthood, is valued as having an effect on their integration with life and involvement in life. Perceived freedom in leisure (PFL) is defined as a cognitive motivational construct of control over leisure experiences, the satisfaction of leisure needs and the participation   in   leisure    behaviour     and     global   life satisfaction (Ellis and Witt, 1994). Sportive recreational activities can facilitate the process of passing from childhood to adolescence. These activities in self-expression have an influence on the individuality, independence and self-confidence of adolescents. Leisure activities, as a means of socialisation, are crucial for all adolescent groups, as peer communication is substantial during  this period. Leisure activities, in which adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities as well as other adolescents participate, can contribute positively to individual development and integration in their lives. However, participation in such activities may not be easy, as it is accompanied by both the barriers experienced by and the opportunities available to individuals with intellectual disabilities. In this case, a leisure education programme can be planned to enhance the life gaining experiences of individuals with intellectual disabilities. Accordingly, Hoge et al. (1999) stated, in their experimental study, that a leisure education programme including leisure activities has a positive impact on the perceived freedom in leisure of children with intellectual disabilities. 

Patterson and Pegg (2008) monitored a development in the level of confidence, skills and self- esteem of adolescents with intellectual disability by participating in leisure activities. Azaiza et al. (2011) and Lifshitz- Vahav et al. (2015) saw that a positive correlation between participation in leisure activities and cognitive functioning supports the importance of participating in leisure activities in order to enhance perceived freedom of adolescents with intellectual disability. 

The passage from childhood to adolescence of children who have a high degree self-expression can occur quite easily. Leisure activities can be considered as enhancing autonomy and decision-making skills (Garst et al., 2001), which are crucial for individuals with intellectual disabilities. McGuire and McDonnell (2008) expressed that the relationship between recreation and self-determination highlights that increased time spent by adolescents and young adults participating in recreation creates higher levels of self-determination. That is to say, reaction is a way of improving self-determination, and this concept can be enhanced by experiences, as well as by teaching explicit skills. The participation level of individuals with intellectual disabilities in social and recreational activities has been observed to be lower according to the studies of Braun et al. (2006) and Poulse et al. (2007). Barriers to leisure can complicate the lives of this group, which prefers to participate in individual activities alone instead of being with their peers. In addition, this group may prefer to participate in activities with familiar people instead of strangers. According to Abbels et al. (2008), the majority of these adolescents prefer to participate in activities with their family members because of their disabilities and the lack of available support, instead of peer activities. In their study, which was conducted among 34 adolescent students with medium intellectual disability and designed with a semi-structured interview method, Buttimer and Tierney (2005) confirmed that the participants are mostly home based and passive in nature. The reason for their low participation rate in activities might originate from the scantiness of their participation in the sports clubs that were  within  the  scope  of  their  opportunities;  however, they did participate in walking (Health Promotion Unit, 1996). In the lives of adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities, their inequality of opportunity and economic status, or their need for the help of another person might be barriers to their access to sportive leisure activities (King et al., 2003; Frederick, 2006). That is, one’s country and family opportunities can sometimes indirectly hinder one’s achievement of many things that are one’s right. However, in many countries, life can be easier. Although a disability is a part of the reality of life, such reality should not include the barriers to achieving the rights of an individual, such as: A. Living independently; B. Enjoying self-determination; C. Making choices; D. Contributing to society; E. Pursuing meaningful careers; and F. Enjoying full inclusion and integration in the economic, political, social, cultural, and educational systems of the society (RAA, 1992). Various studies have investigated whether family income is a factor having an impact on participation in leisure activities; in addition, many studies have affirmed that people who have economic disadvantages prefer to participate in leisure activities at lower levels. Bedia et al. (2011) indicate in their study that personal factors and perceived barriers are the main determinants of participation in leisure activities, rather than disability-related factors. Environ-mental factors are substantial in the generation of opportunity and the enhancement of the self-determination of adolescents with intellectual disabilities. Leisure activities, which present them with opportunities to choose the best among the alternatives in the environment, are a key point in achieving self-determination for those who have developmental disabilities.

In addition, location, as an environmental factor, might be a barrier to participation in sportive leisure activities. The study of Zijlstra and Vlaskamp (2005) found that, among environmental factors, residence modality has an influence on participation in leisure activities, and adults with ID have more limited access to normalised leisure activities, because they prefer to use day centres and their residences. According to Braun et al. (2006), improving daily activities, increasing attendance at postsecondary school and opportunities for competitive employment and participation in impairment-related programmes are facilitators that enhance the types of leisure activities for young adults with disabilities, thereby aiding their development.

Perceived freedom in leisure reflects self-assessments of participation in leisure activities and is affected in this context by life experiences. Individuals, who believe in having more freedom in leisure experiences, tend to exhibit much more efficiency, locus of control and internal motivation (Janke and Di?., 2010). Considering the importance of these concepts for adolescents with intellectual disability, it is crucial to develop perceived freedom in leisure. Leisure activities are important tools to improve perceived freedom in  leisure  (Witt  and  Ellis, 1985, 1986; Ellis and With, 1994; Hoge et al.,1999; Poulse et al., 2007). Primarily, the literature has many studies about physical development of individuals with intellectual disability through participation in sportive physical activities (Graham and Reid, 2000; Frey et al., 2008; Harada and Siperstein, 2009; Hutzler and Korsensky ,2010; Boddy et al., 2015; Hsieh et al., 2015; Einarsson et al., 2015). However, studies on participation in sportive activities by adolescents with intellectual disability willingly, for fun and relaxation are limited.  

Although it is known that perceived freedom in leisure has an indirect impact on the life skills of adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities, the number of research studies that are related to sport-based leisure activities, which are an important means of improving them, is quite limited within the national and international literature. In light of this assumption, the objective of this research is to determine the effect of a leisure education programme including sportive activities on the perceived freedom in leisure of adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities.

Research questions

1. Are any differences observed in the perceptions of freedom in leisure between the groups of adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities who participated in a leisure education programme including sportive activities and those who did not?

2. Is there a difference in the perceptions of freedom before and after the participation of the group of adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities in a leisure education programme including sportive activities?

The Hypotheses of the research

H1: There is a significant difference in support of the experimental group regarding ‘perceptions of freedom in leisure’ between the experimental group, who participated in a leisure education programme including sportive activities and adolescents who participated in the control group.

H2: There is a significant difference in the ‘perceived freedom in leisure’ before and after the participation of adolescents who were in experimental group in a leisure education programme including sportive activities. 

The results of the study are presented by first indicating the research question, and then, by addressing the corresponding hypothesis.

In Table 4, a comparison of the scores for perceived freedom in leisure of the experimental and control groups is shown. Table 4 presents the differences in the pre- and post-tests of the perceived freedom in leisure scale for the experimental groups.

There was a significant difference in support of the experimental group regarding ‘perceptions of freedom in leisure’ between the experimental group, who participated in a leisure education programme including sportive activities, and adolescents who were the participants in the control group.

There was a significant difference in the ‘perceived freedom in leisure’ before and after the participation of adolescents who were in an experimental group in a leisure education programme including sportive activities (Table 5).

First, in the study, we investigated the effect of a leisure education   programme   including   sportive   activities  in  which adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities participated, on their perceptions of freedom in leisure. A significant difference was shown between the experimental and control groups; the average scores for the leisure of the experimental group were higher than those of the control group, which did not participate in the programme. This result demonstrates the positive effect of a leisure education programme including sportive activities on the perception of freedom in leisure. In addition, we can note that the participants became aware of the definition of leisure and resources; in addition, the skills of friendship, social communication, decision-making and self-determination were enhanced.

A high score of perceived freedom in leisure, as determined by the Leisure Diagnostic Battery, addresses high perceived leisure competence, perceived leisure control, recognition that highlights the need and desire for leisure satisfaction and a high level of participation in leisure activities.

This result is parallel to that found in a study which was conducted among adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities who participated in a leisure education programme. Although Hoge et al. (1999) could not find any significant differences between the pre-tests of the experimental and control groups, a significant difference between their post-tests was found, which supported the experimental group. In light of these results, five concepts that were included in the leisure education programme that was conducted by Hoge et al. have a positive impact on the perception of freedom in leisure. In that study, it was observed that adolescents with mild intellectual disabilities who actively participated in recreational activities presented high scores in self-determination (confidence). Accordingly, recreational activities are a crucial means for the enhancement of self-determination skills. This assumption is actualised as it is indirectly related to high PFL scores.

Secondly in the light of my study results, for adolescents in the experimental group who participated in the sportive leisure activities programme, perceived freedom was examined before and after the programme. Higher scores were observed after the sportive leisure programme than in the pre-test scores of experimental group with mild intellectual disabilities; this increase is stated to be statistically significant. In a similar study that was conducted by Hoge et al. (1999), the perceived freedom in leisure scores of the experimental group, before and after the leisure education programme, were shown to have increased; however, this increase was not found to be statistically significant. Although the leisure education programme, which was conducted using leisure coaches for 18 weeks, three hours per week, was not shown to result in a significant difference in experimental group, there was a statistically significant difference in the control group.

The leisure education programme including sportive activities conducted by the researcher in the current study is characterised by a basic difference from the leisure education programme conducted by Hoge et al. (1999): physical mobility. Play that includes the education ladder of sports, such as table tennis, volleyball, basketball, athletics, etc., as well as traditional play, was conducted for 8 weeks, for two hours a day, two days a week, as planned.

The participants were eager and motivated during the programme. The reason is two hours was used for amusement. The positive interaction between the coaches and participants is another reason.  

If an education programme and a leisure education programme including sportive activities are compared in terms of efficiency, a mobility-based sportive leisure activity programme seems to be more effective in enhancing perceived freedom in leisure.

In their study, Abbels et al. (2008) stated that adole-scents with intellectual disabilities participate in various activities, such as sports teams or youth group activities, with their counterparts. It is important to plan such activities, considering the influence of friend relationships and socialisation on perceived freedom in leisure.

Although the participation of adolescents with intellect-tual disabilities in recreational physical activities is substantial, their participation rate is lower than their counterparts who do not have any mental disorders (Cairney et al., 2005; Poulse et al., 2006). Previous studies have demonstrated that individuals with mild intellectual disabilities prefer their families as opposed to their counterparts (Pretty et al., 2002; Solish et al., 2003)

 Studies in the literature highlight that they choose to participate in activities in which they can be successful, such as leisure activities. This is associated with leisure opportunities and the generation of opportunities. Buttimer and Tierney’s (2005) study indicates that the ‘access to’ and ‘location of’ leisure facilities are identified as barriers to leisure by both students and parents.

Finally, the reason for the significant difference between the pre- and post-tests of the control group may be the differences that occurred in the pre-test. The reason can be related to the awareness of PFL questions as associated with informing the participants about the subject before using the PFL instrument. 

We can state that a leisure education programme including sportive activities has a positive impact on the perceived freedom in leisure of individuals with mild intellectual disabilities. There are a limited number of research studies in the literature that even reflect the positive impact of leisure education programmes on the life skills of individuals with intellectual disabilities (Zoerink, 1988; Bedini et al., 1993; Mahon, 1994; Lovell et al., 1996; Williams and Dattilo, 1997; Hoge et al., 1999; Sivan and Stebbins, 2011). For this reason, sport and amusement-based leisure activities that allow groups with intellectual disabilities to feel perceived freedom should be planned and provided in order to enhance the integration of these groups with society, and they should be included in the national and international literature. A programme based on leisure in education programmes for individuals with intellectual disabilities has not been conducted in Turkey. The sustainability of current active leisure programmes would be a positive development for the students.

Long-term leisure education programmes including sportive activities, which are an important reflection of the components of leisure experiences, are suggested for future research in order to enhance the effectiveness of these programmes. Moreover, it could be a better contribution to the literature, by planning a qualitative study about the evaluation of efficiency of the programme.

The author has not declared any conflicts of interest.

The author wishes to give special thanks to the Executives in Meram Special Education Center and Karatay Special Education Application Center and the coaches for their contributions and support.