Reading is a learning domain, which provides the biggest contribution to the mental development. Reading is a sense-making process consisted of such various operations of eye, sound and brain as seeing perceiving, vocalizing, constructing in the mind, and understanding pictures, words, sentences, punctuation marks and other elements (TDK, 1981; O?uzkan 1987; Güleryüz, 2001; MEB and  TTKB, 2005; Akyol, 2006). Reading is the analysis and making-sense of  written  symbols  (Heilman et al., 1967). According to constructivist approach, reading is a process in which prior knowledge is integrated with the knowledge in the text, and the meaning is given once again (Güne?, 2013).

Reading and writing is an important skill in success in school life and social life of an individual (Akyol and Temur, 2008). Learning to read is a significant milestone for children. The reading skill is the base for children’s academic   success.  It  can  be  seen  that  children  who have difficulty in reading in the first few years of their school life progress slowly in their academic life (Kuo et al., 2004). Learning occurs substantially by reading (Ünalan, 2006). It starts at elementary school first grade to gain this skill as required; on the other hand, it lasts lifelong to use and develop the skill (Akyol and Temur, 2008). The students who do not have reading habit aand cannot understand what they read cannot be expected to improve their vocabulary and to gain new experiences (Ünalan, 2006). Also, reading affects the way individuals question themselves and percieve the world. Children strengthen their memory by reading objects, texts, words and letters (Freire, 1983).  

Reading is seperated into six types: visual reading, silent reading, interrogative reading, reading by sharing and indpendent reading. One of these reading types is oral reading. Oral reading is the process of seeing the writing, expressing the words, finding the images and meaning of the words in mental dictionary, vocalizing with the help of speech organs, and understanding (Güne?, 2013; Kavcar et al., 1995). In oral reading, there is need to understand the text, to make emphasis and intonation suitable for the content and to pay attention to the punctuation marks (Dökmen, 1994). In oral reading, each word is read. The speech speed of the speaker limits his/her reading speed (Güleryüz, 2001). Oral reading makes students to learn reading and gain listening habit; and reading states to be identified (Güne?, 2013).

Reading is that written symbols analyzed and given a meaning. When an individual reaches a meaning, she/he starts to learn. Reading is a long process. Analyzing, understanding, interpreting are gained in time. In order to gain these skills properly, it is important to obviate reading miscues on time. Reading miscues are the factors preventing or retarding the process of analyzing and understanding the symbols.The factors preventing gaining reading skill are given in Figure 1 (Heilman, 1967, Cited by: Arslan, 2008). With this study, all these factors give an idea about how children improve their reading aloud skills in classroom.

 

 

Reading is a process for children like sampling, predicting, and confirming (Buke, 1981). Many tools are used for analyzing oral reading. Farr (1969) examined children’s reading errors skills in categories, such as word attack fluency, voice volume, and posture. Miscues analysis is important for reading process (Goodman, 1969). Miscue is renamed errors which deviate from writing text during oral reading (Ruddell, 1999). Goodman and Burke (1972) analyzed children’s reading miscues. They found the rate of miscues depends on how the reader’s language is exhibited (Buke, 1981). Readers use cue system in reading process during reading: gropho-phonic, syntactic, and semantic. For understanding of reading process, this cue system is very important. For children’s conflict as a cognitive, they create more miscues during the oral reading (O'Brien de Ramirez, 2008). According to Davenport (2002) children often show alterations, omission,  insertion,  repetition  etc., to the text during their reading.   Ediger (2003) claimed children make miscues, such as omitting words, substituting words, mispronouncing some words.  Readers’ miscues are defined under four groups, which are substitution, insertion, omission, and mispronunciation (Otto, 2008). Seymour et al. (2003) evaluated reading miscues throughout different languages: English, Danish, Portuguese, and French. In these languages students showed substitution miscues and non-word production. Similarly, this study examined what students did as oral reading miscues between English and Turkish languages.   In this study, we emphasize oral reading miscues in first reading. First grade students’ oral reading miscues were examined in terms of ten variables miscues: skipping oral reading, oral reading by adding, oral reading by repeating, oral reading by following, posture, position of book, volume of voice, oral reading rate, reading expression of punctuation, and breathing control.

 

Importance of the study

The teaching of first reading and writing is the fundamental part of teaching activities. No development can be done without learning how to read and write. Also, the quality of teaching first reading and writing affects the success at school. UNESCO emphasizes that reading and writing is a fundamental need and, necessary for people to continue their existence, to develop their capacities, to live and work honorably, to participate in progress, to come up in the world, to make logical decisions, and to continue to learn (?enol, 1998). For this reason, many countries make researches on how to teach first reading and writing effectively. In the world, most of the researches on teaching of first reading and writing have focused on the methods. They have tried to identify which method is the most effective over many years. This understanding has changed nowadays (Güne?, 2007). In recent years, fundamental changes have been performed on elementary school programs. The most important of them is Elementary School Turkish Lesson (1-5 Grades) Curriculum. With the new curriculum, there have been important changes. First, phoneme based sentence methods have been used instead of sentence method in the teaching of first reading and writing. On the other hand, teaching of first reading and writing starts with italic handwriting instead of perpendicular basic letters. Since the teaching process of first reading and writing is the basis of education, it is really important to observe the studies abroad in this field; to compare them to studies in our country and to offer new solutions.

 

The aim of the study

The aim of this study is to compare the teaching process of first reading in the US and Turkey. This study observes developing first reading of students, their reading miscues, and compare to first reading process of students in the US and Turkey. This study includes the following research question:

What are the similarities and differences between the teaching process of first reading in the US and Turkey?

 

Limitation of the study

This study was limited to 2 first grade students. In both countries, socioeconomic status of students selected was similar. Furthermore, the study was limited to 2 languages (English and Turkish).  In this study we observed only one elementary school first grade classes’ students in Ankara city within 2010-2011 academic year. Also, we observed only one class in Okemos city within 2011-2012 academic year. Our observations only consisted of oral reading miscues. 

In this study, we used scanning method and observation technique. We gathered information about students’ learning process of reading. The study was systematic and natural observation. We never interfered during observations. The data gained as a result of the observations were saved on the forms developed before in directions of the experts.

 

Participants

In this study, participants were two first grade classes’ students, randomly selected, in both countries. In US, 22 students participated and in Turkey, 30 students participated in this study. We selected similar school neighborhoods in terms of students’ income status. Among observed students in the scope of the research, 1 Turkish and 2 American students are neglected because of the fact that they cannot read. In the scope of the research, 20 American and 29 Turkish students were observed over 8 months and observation results were recorded on the forms.

Universe and samples: Because the aim of the research needs various types of universe and samples, universe suitable for the conditions of the country and sample that can represent the universe will be identified. The universe of the study consists of elementary school first graders in US in 2011-2012 Educational Terms. The sample of the study consists of elementary school first graders –who are randomly selected- in Okemos City, Michigan, US in 2011-2012 Educational Terms.

 

Procedures

Collection of the data

We used various data collection tools during collection, evaluation and tabulation of the data. Development, application of the data collection tools, recording the data on tables and figure chart were held in order. During data collection process, firstly we got permissions for the study and then we had information about the students, the teachers and the related institutions. To answer problems and sub problems of the study, we observed -in order- the students’ learning process of first reading and writing during the eight months, first oral reading miscues.

Students’ learning process of first reading, oral reading miscues were identified with observation forms: Oral reading skill observation form. The variables in these forms are given in Table 1.  We coded students learning reading prose by these forms. Coding results were given as percentages for comparison of both countries. 

 

 

Measures

For the analysis of the data, we made tables and figure for the data about oral reading skills of the students by using SPSS. Then the data from the observation of oral reading miscues of the students learning first reading and writing were analyzed by using SPSS.

Oral reading skill observation form was used for evaluation of students. This form was developed according to experts’ opinions used to observe oral reading miscues of the students. In this form, in order to determine the miscues during oral reading, we conducted the observation according to ten variables. 

Results of the study were given as oral reading skills. Over an eight month period, the data were collected on ten variables related to oral reading development for both Turkish and American elementary school first grade students; skipping oral reading, oral reading by adding, oral reading by repeating, oral reading by following, posture, position of book, volume of voice, oral reading rate, reading expression of punctuation, and breathing control.

 

Skipping oral reading

We observed first grade students’ skipping during oral reading (which were coded as: letter, syllable or word skipping and line jumping or regular oral reading). Figure 2 shows the findings. 

 

 

Figure 2 shows that, at the beginning of November, 27 Turkish students (93%) and 22 American students (100%) read with regular oral reading (i.e., not skipping). The trend line for Turkish students remains the same until April, when the percent of regular oral reading increased upward and reached a ceiling of 100% in May.

Conversely, in the beginning of November, 2 Turkish students (7%) read with letter, syllable or word skipping. This rate was maintained through March, when the skipping decreased downward in April to a floor of  0%  in May. As both sets of trend lines indicate, Turkish and American students achieved 100% regular oral reading by May. At the end of the observation, both countries can be considered successful in terms of students' skills in oral reading. When analyzing the figures in general, first grade students of both countries were seen to be successful in terms of regular oral reading.

 

Oral reading by adding

We observed first grade students adding (rather than skipping) during oral reading (which were coded as: letter, syllable or word adding and adding sentence or regular oral reading). Figure 3 shows the findings. 

 

 

Figure 3 shows that Turkish and American first graders did not add letters, syllables, words or sentences during oral reading. One hundred percent of those observed read normally and oral reading was similar between Turkish and American students.

 

Oral reading by repeating

We observed first grade students’ repetition during oral reading (which were coded as: letter, syllable or word repeating and sentence repeating or regular oral reading). Figure 4 shows the findings. 

 

 

Oral reading by following

We observed first grade students during oral reading used finger, hand or arm for tracking; and ruler, pencil etc. for tracking or regular oral reading. Figure 5 shows the findings.

 

 

Figure 5 shows that, in the beginning of November,  5 Turkish students (17%) and 8 American students (40%) read with regular oral reading. American students’ regular oral reading rates decrease in March from 50 to 35%, and then the rate increases from 35% in April to 60% in May. The trend line for Turkish students remained the same until March, when the percent of regular oral reading increased upward, from 17 to 62% in June. 

Furthermore, while 12 American students (60%) used their finger, hand or arm for tracking, 22 Turkish students (76%) did the same in November. The trend line for Turkish students remained the same until March and American student’s rate decreased from 60 to 45% until January. After the decline 38% of Turkish students and 40% of American students read with finger, hand or arm for tracking in June.

While none of the American students read by oral reading by following a ruler, pencil etc. for tracking during the academic year, 7% Turkish students read by oral reading following a ruler, pencil etc. for tracking from November to April. The trend line for Turkish students decreases downward in April to a floor of 0% in May.

By March, there was a rapid increase in the rate of regular readers. Oral reading by following finger, hand or arm for tracking; and ruler, pencils etc. for tracking was in sharp decline. At the beginning of the academic year, Turkish students’ being higher finger, hand or arm for tracking rates can be explained as follows. Turkey has a low rate of enrollment in kindergarten, and students begin learning first reading and writing in first grade. 

As Figure 5 indicates oral reading by following “finger, hand, arm, pencil or ruler etc. for tracking” results in different findings for Turkey and US. As the observation concluded, while 83% of the Turkish students use tracking by finger, hand, arm, pencil or ruler etc.  during the oral reading at the beginning of academic year, 12 American students (60%) use them. It was observed that at the end of the academic year, Turkish students (45%), and 20% American students decrease use of finger, hand, arm, pencil or ruler etc. for tracking. According to observation results, 11 Turkish students (38%) and 8 American students (40%) continue tracking finger, hand, arm, pencil or ruler etc. in oral reading. As a conclusion, the percentage of  tracking  while  doing  oral  reading  for Turkish students dropped from 83 to 38%, while that of American students changed from 60 to 40% at the end of the academic year. Results of this observation are subject to further research. 

 

Posture

We observed first grade students’ posture during oral reading (which were coded as: very hunch or lean back, irregular [front or rear waggle] or regular posture). Figure 6 shows the findings. 

 

 

Figure 6 shows that 20 of American students (100%) had regular posture during the oral reading, 16 Turkish students (55%) had regular posture during the oral reading at the beginning of the academic year. The trend line for Turkish students (55% to 93%) remained the same until March, when the percent of regular posture during oral reading increased upward, from 16 to 27 in May.

Conversely, starting in November, while 0% of American student during the oral reading regular posture, 24% of Turkish students during the oral reading with very hunch or lean back. This rate was maintained through March, when the very hunched or lean back rate decreased downward in April to 7% in May.

In the beginning of November, while 0% of American student during the oral reading had regular posture, 21% of Turkish students during the oral reading had irregular posture [front or rear waggle]. This rate was maintained through March, when the irregular [front or rear waggle] rate decreased downward in April to a floor of 0% in May.

 

Position of book

We observed first grade students’ position of book during oral reading (which were coded as: proper - partially proper and improper position or proper position. Figure 7 shows the findings. 

 

 

Figure 7 shows that 29 Turkish students (100%) and 19 American students’ (95%) position of book was proper during the oral reading at the beginning of the academic year. American students’ position of the book was in the proper - partially proper way in February.

 

Volume of voice

We observed first grade students’ voices during oral reading (which were coded as: very loud or very quiet, irregular volume or regular voice). Figure 8 shows the findings. 

 

 

Figure 8 shows that, in the beginning of November, 10 Turkish students (34%) and 16 American students (80%) during the oral reading had regular voice. The trend line for Turkish students remained the same until March, when the percent of regular voice increased upward, from 34  to  83%  in  June.  American  students’  regular  voice rates increase from 80 to 90% between December and March, to 85% in April before returning to 90% in June.

Furthermore, while 10% of Turkish students and 20% of American students were very loud or very quiet in November. The trend line for Turkish students remained the same until April, and then decreased to 3% in May. American students’ rates decreased from 20 to 15% in December and February. While none of the American students read with irregular volume during the academic year, 55% of Turkish students read with irregular volume from November to March, before the rate decreased to 10% in May.

By March, there was a rapid increase in the rate of regular readers. Oral reading was very loud or very quiet and irregular volume was in sharp decline. At the beginning of the academic year, Turkish students being very loud or very quiet and irregular volume rates can be explained as follows: Turkey has a low rate of enrollment in kindergarten, and students begin learning first reading and writing in 1st grade. 

Adjustment volume of the voice in oral reading for American students changed  from  80 to 90% in positive way during the observation period. The change for Turkish students’ adjustment of oral reading volume was more significant. It changed from 34 to 83% through positive way. While advancement for American students was 10%, it was 49% for Turkish students in the same time period.

 

Oral reading speed

We observed first grade students’ speed during oral reading (which were coded as: too fast or too slow, irregular speed or regular speed). Figure 9 shows the findings. 

 

Figure 9 shows that, in the beginning of November, 8 Turkish students (28%) and  11  American students (55%) had regular speed in oral reading. The trend line for Turkish students remained the same until March, when the percent of regular speed in oral reading increased from 8 (28%) in March to 24 (83%) in June. American students’ regular oral reading rates increase from 11 (55%) in December to 13 (65%) in January,  after which regular oral reading rates increased from 13 (65%) in February to 14 (70%) in March, and finally reach 15 (75%) in June.

The cases of students' oral reading too fast or too slow in November were 18 for Turkish students, 62% and 9 for American students (45%). The rate of American students reading too fast or too slow decreased from 9 (45%) in December to 7 (35%) in January. The rate of Turkish students’ oral reading too fast or too slow declined from March to May, with the rate decreasing from 18 (62%) to 5 (17%). The rate of American students’ oral reading too fast or too slow decreased from 7 (35%) in February to 5 (25%) in June.

In November, none of the American students had ire-gular oral reading speed, while 10% of Turkish students had irregular oral reading speed. Turkish students’ rate of irregular oral reading speed was maintained through March, and then decreased to 0% by May.

Throughout the time advancement in oral reading speed for American students was observed as 55 to 75%, advancement for Turkish students was from 28 to 83%. Improvement in regular oral reading speed rate for American students was 20 and 55% for Turkish students.

This significant advancement of Turkish students can be explained by the structure of Turkish Language. Since Turkish is a phonetic language, it facilitates learning first reading.   Turkish students first learn reading and writing in 6 months to 1 year.  It takes 2 to 3 years for American students.

 

Reading expression or punctuation

We observed first grade students’ expressions or punctuation during oral reading (which were coded as: period-stop; comma-pause, prosody or irregular). Figure 10 shows the findings. 

 

 

Figure 10 shows that, in the beginning of November, 11 Turkish students (38%) and 14  American students (70%) had period-stop; comma-pause in oral reading. The trend line for Turkish students remained the same until March, when the percent of period-stop; comma-pause in oral reading increased upward and spanned from 11 (38%) in March to 23 (79%) in June. American students’ period-stop; comma-pause oral reading rates increase from 14 (70%) in December to 15 (75%) in January, and this rate remained the same until June.

Conversely, in the beginning of November, while 6 American students (30%) exhibited prosody during oral reading, 18 Turkish students (62%) demonstrated prosody during oral reading. This rate of Turkish students was maintained through March, when the prosody rate decreased downward from 62 to 21% in May. American students’ prosody rates decreased from 30% in December to 25% in January, and this rate remained the same until June. American and Turkish students did not exhibit irregular oral reading during the academic year.

This study’s results related to oral reading expression of punctuation “which were coded as:  period-stop;  comma-pause, prosody or irregular” led to different findings for Turkish and American students. At the beginning of  the observation, it was found that 11 Turkish students’ (38%) and 14 American students (70%) used period-stop; comma-pause during oral reading. At the end of the observation, 23 Turkish students’ (79%) and 15 American students’ (75%) used   period-stop; comma-pause.  As a conclusion the observations indicate Turkish students have learned first reading and writing with a large proportion at the end of elementary school first grade. American students first learn reading and writing in the kindergarten   and continue learning process in the first and second grade of elementary school. Due to different characteristics of Turkish and English languages; ??teaching of reading and writing has different applications.

 

Breathing Control

We observed first grade students’ breathing control during oral reading (which were coded as: mumbling or swallowing, irregularly breathing or controlled breathing). Figure 11 shows the findings.

 

 

Figure 11 shows that, in the beginning of November, 12 Turkish students (41%) and 18 American students (90%) exhibited controlled breathing in oral reading. The trend line for Turkish students remained the same until March, when the percent of controlled breathing in oral reading increased from 41% (12 students) in March to 83% (24 students) in June. The trend line for American students controlled breathing in oral reading rate remained the same until June.

Conversely, in the beginning of November, while 0% of American students mumbled or swallowed during the oral reading, 2 Turkish students (7%) demonstrated the same behavior. This rate was maintained through March, when the mumbling or swallowing rate increased from 7 to 10% in April. Turkish students’ mumbling or swallowing rate decreased downward in April to a floor of 0% in May.

The percentage of students' irregularly breathing during oral reading in November was 15 of Turkish students (52%) and 2 of American students (10%). The trend line for American students irregularly breathing in oral reading rate remained the same until June. The trend line for Turkish students remained the same until March, when the percentage of irregularly breathing in oral reading decreased from 52 to 17% in May.

The results of Development of breath control skills observed in elementary school first grade students’ during the oral reading were analyzed; this study results show that 18 of American students’ (90%) have deve-loped breath control ability during the oral reading. When the breath control skill of Turkish students' during oral reading was analyzed, percentage of controlled breathing in oral reading was 41% at the beginning of the academic year. This rate increased from 41% (12 students) to 83% (24 students) at the end of the academic year.  As a conclusion, irregularly breathe control during oral reading for Turkish students dropped from 52 to 17% at the end of the academic year. 

This study emphasizes learning of early reading and writing process in the US and Turkey. This process consists of three parts: development of students in early reading and writing, oral reading and handwriting miscues, and oral reading and handwriting rates. Development of elementary school first grade students’ early reading was observed according to ten variables.  Development of elementary school first grade students’ early writing was observed according to eleven variables.  Elementary school first grade students’ oral reading rate, the number of words and letters were measured in a minute. Elementary school first grade students' hand-writing rates are discussed under four categories; copying handwriting, comprehending handwriting, dictation hand-writing, and fragment handwriting of words and letters. Each category was measured in a minute.

It is important to identify reading miscues at early grades, intervene on time, and apply supportive method on time (Arslan and Dirik, 2008). During the reading process, students can read with omission, repetition, substation, insertion, skipping of words, etc. (Nandzo, 2005). Zakaluk (1996) claimed students demonstrate lots of hesitations add words, omits words, when they are learning to read. In this study we observed similar miscues of students during their reading. Development of elementary school first grade students first reading was observed according to ten variables; skipping oral reading, oral reading by adding, oral reading by repeating, oral reading by following, posture, position of book, volume of voice, oral reading rate, reading expression of punctuation, and breathing control. Results of the observation for skipping oral reading, oral reading by adding, oral reading by repeating, and position of book indicated the same findings for both study groups. When students read a text, sometimes they repeat the same word or sentences several times.  On the contrary fluent reading involves reading correctly and smoothly (Otto, 2008). Also, students consider punctuation and reading expression in order to better understand a reading text (Hasbrouck et al., 1999). In the study, we showed similar results for some oral reading skills of students. The observation for the other six oral reading skills “oral reading by following, posture, volume of voice, oral reading speed, oral reading expression of punctuation, and breathing control” concluded in different developing reading skills of students.

During the development of oral reading, students make more miscues which results in lower understanding of the text meaning (Laing, 2002). In both countries, students showed higher level (38-40%) of oral reading behavior by following. Oral reading by following reduces speed of oral reading and understanding of the text. In terms of posture, students started to learn reading with irregular posture in Turkey more than US. However, at the end of the academic year, students showed better regular posture in both countries. The same result was seen for volume of voice, oral reading speed, reading expression or punctuation, and breathing control.  In the process of learning to read in both countries, while American students begin to learn first reading and writing in kindergarten, Turkish students begin to learn reading in first grade of elementary school.  Students have many experiences about literacy and they also focus as readers or writers in their preschools (Morrov, 2007). Therefore, American students have advantage; they can improve their reading skills earlier than Turkish students.

In the researches related to students’ reading aloud speed and reading fluently, teacher behaviors are highlighted. Classroom teachers in Turkey identify the reasons of not being able to contribute to the improvement of students’ skill of reading fluently as: that the classrooms are crowded, shortness of the time, and that they do not have enough field information (Çayc? and Demir, 2006; Erkul and Erdo?an, 2009; Rasinski, 2006). The conductors of the program are the teachers and the success of the teachers in application of the program is as significant as the program itself at least. If we can raise the level of information and awareness by giving sufficient support for teaching reading fluently, we can remove most of the straits resulting from application (Çay?r and Ulusoy, 2014). The significance of teacher attitudes for improvements of students’ skills of reading fluently will be valid for correcting reading miscues. Teachers had better correct students’ reading miscues immediately in the classroom environment without insulting them; and they should take necessary precautions.

Guided reading involves the works in which teacher or another adult reads with the learner, observes the learner during reading (Güne?, 2007). In their studies on guided reading, Rasinski (2005), Duran and Sezgin (2012) state that the method of guided reading raises the skills of comprehension and fluent reading. Because of the structure of English language, guided reading is more significant in teaching reading and writing in English language than in Turkish language. In the observations, it was observed that learners had difficulty in reading the words or sentences they had not read with a guide before. It was seen that similar difficulties were experienced in teaching reading in Turkish. In both languages, reading with a guide and correction of the reading miscues immediately by a guide or a competent minimize the reading miscues. In guided reading, learners can be supported by teachers or family members (Kasten and Y?ld?r?m, 2011) or adults, children in other age groups and peers experienced in guided reading. During the observations conducted in the USA, it was observed that 3^rd graders give support in order to contribute to the improvement of reading skills of first graders. In reading hours, it was observed that half of the 1^st graders went to the classroom of 3^rd graders; and, half of the 3^rd graders went to the classroom of the 1^st graders. In these classrooms, it was observed that older students read together with the younger ones.

On the other hand, school-parents and teacher-parents cooperation is significant in order to minimize the reading miscues. In the studies, it was emphasized that school-parents cooperation affects the school success of the learners positively; parents should be trained to protect the children from misdirection and to prevent the contradiction between teachers and parents (Çelenk, 2001). It was highlighted that the implementations con-ducted at school should be supported by parents. School and family are two distinct social institutions and they were shaped around different expectations. Common actions of these two distinct institutions are for the benefit of learners. It is more significant especially for the elementary school first graders; because the most fundamental skills of reading and learning are formed in that educational term (?im?ek and Tanayd?n, 2002). There are many studies showing the importance of the support of the parents outer from the school for the improvement of learners’ reading skills in the period of early childhood. According to the results of these studies, it was stated that the development of learners’ literacy is a multi-dimensional process and all share holders had better make contributions (Gül, 2007; Kayser, 2006; Lerner, 2000; Li, 2003).

According to the results of the studies held by Çelenk (2003), the school success of the children whose parents communicate in a healthy way, are supportive and give importance to school-parents cooperation is much higher than the others. Çelenk suggestst school success and the improvement of the learners’ reading and writing skills such as:”parents should be given information about the activities held at school and their support should be taken. Some precautions to strengthen school-parents cooperation should be taken.”

When findings of this study are analyzed, it is seen that majority of Turkish students have preschool education, but they do not have enough practice in reading and writing. Due to the structure of Turkish language, Turkish students learn reading and writing in 6 months to one year. This period for American students is 2-3 years long. In Turkey preschool curriculum does not include teaching of letters and words, but focuses on visual reading and drawing. However, American preschool education emphasizes teaching of sounds, letters, and words.  

When we considered data provided as a results of this study, we obtain similar results, and also closed results for both study groups. 

Analyzing oral reading miscues for first grade students  skipping oral reading, oral reading by adding, oral reading by repeating, and position of book provide as results showing students from both countries don’t have significant miscues. On the other hand, analyzing oral reading by following skills results in 38% of Turkish students, while 40% of American students continue tracking by finger, hand, arm, pencil or ruler etc. There is a need to apply certain measures to correct tracking finger, hand, arm, pencil or ruler etc. miscues, while oral reading in first elementary schools students in both countries. At the beginning of academic year, American students makes less miscues, in terms of posture, volume of voice, oral reading speed, reading expression of punctuation, and breathing control, compared to Turkish students. When we analyze the situation at the end of the academic year, Turkish students advance and reach to the level of American students, and make less miscue.

Considering results of this research, oral reading miscues can be subject of another detailed study. Botthof (1980) found that illustrations do not have effect on children’s reading miscues.

This study examined ten oral reading miscues of students, which indicated many miscues in both countries. Causes of oral reading miscues such as the effect of teachers, parents, text features etc. can be researched by investigator. Reading success of students needs more connection between related teachers (Sangster, 2008). 

Teachers can apply certain measures to correct tracking finger, hand, arm, pencil or ruler etc. miscues. When students present certain miscues during the oral reading in class, teachers should guide constructively, and may be role model. And also parents’ role is crucial during this process. Parents and teachers may collaborate to contribute students’ advancement in oral reading. Parents should be educated about how they contribute to academic improvement of children. Teachers should organize activities in order to improve reading skills with the help of older students and peers as well as parents. Necessary precautions for correction of the reading miscues should be carried out in cooperation. Guided reading activities should be increased. They should benefit from e-books. They should read aloud from e-books and students should follow the text. The reading speed of the e-books should be adaptable in order for students to follow the text according to their level. This research is based on sampling form to different countries.  Similar studies can be conducted in other countries. This type of studies could  contribute  to  reduce  oral  reading and handwriting miscues, and increase comprehension, quality and productivity.            

This research aimed to determine first grade students’ reading and writing learning process and oral reading and handwriting rates could lead to similar studies. Similar studies are suggested in other countries. This type of studies could contribute to reduce handwriting miscues, and increase comprehension, quality and productivity.

The author has not declared any conflict of interests.