Full Length Research Paper
ABSTRACT
Traditional medicine has remained the most affordable and readily available source of treatment for primary care in poor African communities. Despite the increasingly common practices of traditional medicine to treat animal diseases, this rich endogenous knowledge is not sufficiently documented. The objective of this review is to synthesize information on ethnoveterinary practices to treat bovine trypanosomiasis in Africa. A systematic review was conducted in two search engines (Google scholar and Scopus) to obtain articles. The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guideline was followed for the review. Boolean operators "AND" or "OR" with keywords were used to search for relevant articles. Seventy-seven articles published in french and english between 2010 and 2020 on trypanocidal medicinal plants used in veterinary medicine in cattle were considered. Thus, 62 plants belonging to 34 families including Leguminosae (11.82%), Maliaceae (8.47%) and Fabaceae (6.77%) were identified. Barks (50.20%), leaves (19.27%) and roots (14.45%) were more used. The examination revealed that decoction (35.79%) and maceration (25.69%) were the main methods of preparation of medicinal plants. The remedies are mainly administered orally. This preliminary work opens the prospect of inventorying and analyzing trypanocidal medicinal plants of the African pharmacopoeia involved in the control of bovine trypanosomosis.
Key words: Medicinal plants, Ethnoveterinary practices, Trypanocidal properties, Cattle, Africa.
INTRODUCTION
Medicinal plants are a valuable heritage for humanity and more particularly for the majority of poor communities in developing countries who depend on them for their primary health care and livelihoods (Koulibaly et al., 2016).
According to the WHO (2002), in West Africa, as in the rest of the continent, more than 80% of the population rely on traditional medicine and medicinal plants to treat themselves and their animals (Jiofack et al., 2010). In fact, out of the 300,000 plant species listed on the planet, more than 200,000 species are encountered in the tropical countries of Africa and have medicinal virtues (Salhi et al., 2010). Microbial and parasitic resistance to different drugs (Mungube et al., 2012; Raikwar and Maurya 2015; Shiferaw et al., 2015 ; Nair and Punniamurthy, 2016) is leading more and more research towards new recipes (Adeneye et al., 2006; Mbaya et al., 2007; Sowemimo et al., 2007; Jeruto et al., 2011; Kidane et al., 2014). The lack of essential medicines, the inadequacy of health care, the high cost of medicines and the socio-cultural habits of the populations explain the use of traditional practices based on medicinal plants (Doumbia, 2015; El Alami et al., 2016; Bayaga et al., 2017). The art of healing with plants has been known and practiced in Africa for a long time because it exploits knowledge transmitted orally from generation to generation to certain categories of initiated individuals who are the traditional health practitioners and herbalists (Okoli et al., 2010; Kplé et al., 2020). Medicinal plants and knowledge related to medicinal plants constitute an important heritage for the African continent (Sango, 2006; Bagayoko, 2020). It is for this reason that several studies have been carried out in Africa to identify plants with the potential to treat at least one animal disease in cattle, sheep and goats (Bum et al., 2011; Martínez and Luján, 2011; Akouedegni et al., 2012; Diatta et al., 2013; Ogni et al., 2014; Houndje et al., 2016). These plants are used by rural populations to treat themselves and to ensure the improvement on sanitary state of their animals, depending on their availability and effectiveness (Soha et al., 2019; Dzoyem et al., 2020). The objective of this study is to synthesize the studies carried out on medicinal plants with trypanocidal properties of the African pharmacopoeia used in traditional veterinary medicine in cattle. The realization of this work makes it possible to set up a document which can be valorized by livestock farmers in Africa and in the world and to deepen the research in other aspects.
METHODOLOGY
Selection of scientific publications
The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guideline was followed for this review (Liberati et al., 2009; Moher et al., 2009a, 2009b). This review was based on field and laboratory studies conducted in Africa and published in scientific journals between 2010 and 2020 following explicit systemic recommendations and criteria for selecting and evaluating relevant research. The choice of this study period was justified by the desire to have recent information on trypanocidal medicinal plants from the last ten years. The selection of articles for this synthesis was based on the date of publication (from the year 2010), the language (English or French), and in relation to the research topic (Medicinal plants with trypanocidal properties used in traditional and veterinary medicine in Africa).
An internet search was conducted using Scopus and Google Scholar to obtain the articles. The documents were downloaded online using a combination of keywords: medicinal plants, traditional medicine, trypanocidal plants, ethnoveterinary, traditional veterinary medicine, African animal trypanosomiasis, and cattle. These keywords were used in French and then translated into English in order to obtain a maximum of documents. This search was conducted on the internet from January 18 to June 13, 2020. This led to a selection of 2754 articles that were reduced to a final set of 77 publications by a two-step process through a set of predefined criteria (Figure 1). The first selection was based on titles and abstracts. The second was based on keywords. If the terms "medicinal plants, animal trypanosomiasis, trypanocidal plants, traditional veterinary medicine" appeared in any of them or if these otherwise indicated that the use of medicinal plants could be addressed in the article, the article was downloaded and checked further. This was performed by reading the abstract and conclusion and searching the document for the terms "medicinal plants," "traditional veterinary medicine," "ethnoveterinary," "ethnobotany," "ethnopharmacology," "veterinary science," and "trypanosomiasis" via the Foxit Reader version 10.1.1 search option. Documents that did not match on at least one plant species unambiguously linked to veterinary use were ignored. This process resulted in the final selection of 77 articles. The 77 papers selected for this synthesis are not considered to be the only ones on the subject but are meant to provide a representative overview of case studies on the use of medicinal plants with trypanocidal properties in traditional veterinary medicine up to the time this synthesis was conducted.
From these 77 articles, it was possible to identify the medicinal plants with trypanocidal properties, the year of publication, the parts used, the botanical families, the modes of preparation, the way of administration, the dosage, the doses used, the lethal dose 50 (when specified) and the different authors as well as their country of origin. Information from review articles was not excluded when it did not refer to articles already included in the search. Found references were recorded in an Excel 2016 database and information about each plant was stored in a separate folder in this database. Duplicates were removed for each plant species.
Data collection
In each article, the following information on plant species unambiguously intended for veterinary use was collected: (i) plants, (ii) parts used (aerial part, bark, branches/stems, flower, flowering aerial part, fruits/seeds, leaves, roots/bulb, whole plant, other); (iii) animal species treated; (iv) method of preparation (maceration, decoction, infusion, extracts, tincture, trituration, syrups, pillage, calcination, others); (v) routes of administration (oral, cutaneous, topical, nasal, ocular, others); (vi) botanical family; (vii) duration of treatment; (viii) dosage; (ix) lethal dose; (x) therapeutic use.
For each publication, the following information was recorded: title, year of publication, corresponding author, country, continent (Africa in this case), method of data collection (laboratory animal species (laboratory animals, livestock, other); target (rural population, published literature, laboratory experiments, other); field of study (traditional veterinary medicine, veterinary medicine, pharmacy and others); methods of knowledge assessment (scientific knowledge, endogenous knowledge, phytochemical studies, toxicity studies, bibliographic synthesis, in vivo and in vitro activity study) and name of the journal. The questionnaire was used in order to perform some statistical tests. If no information for any of the aforementioned categories could be found, they are classified as "non available data" (Mayer et al., 2014; Ayrle et al., 2016).
Data analysis
Survey responses were entered into an Excel 2016 spreadsheet for all 77 publications. These responses were coded in the process to facilitate further analysis. Descriptive statistics were performed using R.4.0.2 software (R Core Team, 2020). The map showing the intensity of medicinal plant studies was developed with Arcgis, version 9.3.1 mapping software (Figure 2).
RESULTS
Geographical distribution of publications
The geographical distribution of publications in Africa is illustrated in Figure 2. Most of the publications on the African continent come from Benin (20, 78%), Ethiopia (12.99%), Nigeria (10.39%), Cameroon (10.39%), Ivory Coast (09.10%), Mali (06.49%) and South Africa (05.19%).
Number of publications included in this review from 2010 to 2020
The synthesis of the number of articles on medicinal plants with trypanocidal properties used in veterinary ethnomedicine for the control of pathologies in animals has seen an increase since the year 2010 and a peak in 2014 and then a sawtooth regression (Figure 3).
Parts used in the plant and method of preparation of medicinal plants
The most used parts are barks (50.20%), leaves (19.27%) and roots (14.45%) for all the identified medicinal plants (Figure 4A). Figure 4B presents the frequency histograms of the different modes of preparation of the remedies.
Decoction (54.46%) and maceration (24.63%) are more used than powder (10.74%).
Families of medicinal plants
All the medicinal plants recorded are grouped in 34 botanical families (Figure 5). It can be seen that the families Leguminosae (11.82%), Maliaceae (8.47%), and Fabaceae (6.77%) are dominant.
Method of data collection
In the documents used for the review, ethnoveterinary surveys (44.56%) are the most used collection method than ethnobotanical surveys (29.87%) and laboratory experiments (19.48%) (Figure 6).
Knowledge assessed in the publications included in this review
Various methods are used to assess knowledge in the documents considered for this review. The most used are endogenous knowledge (70.51%); in vitro activities (10.25%) and in vivo knowledge (7.69%) (Figure 7).
DISCUSSION
Most of the authors consulted used qualitative techniques for the detection of secondary metabolites as shown in Table 1. There is a wide range of evidence-based knowledge on medicinal plants with trypanocidal properties focusing on 62 medicinal plant species within 34 families in the last 10 years based on the publications evaluated in this review on the African continent (Table 2). The emergence of multidrug resistance in human and animal diseases is leading to trends to strengthen research in alternative treatment options. Medicinal plants and their extracts could be an option to prevent and cure diseases in cattle, especially African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT). The analysis for this review will be done according to (i) limitations of the research method for this synthesis; (ii) treatments of AAT with plants; (iii) evaluation of methods and techniques of information collection; (iv) mode of preparation; (v) parts used; (vi) routes of administration and (vii) valorization of medicinal plants.
Evaluation of the research method used and limitations
This systemic review was designed and conducted according to the guidelines and tools of the statement (Liberati et al., 2009; Moher et al., 2009a, 2009b). This search strategy was adopted to obtain as much information as possible on medicinal plants with trypanocidal properties. Human clinical studies, in vitro experimental studies in laboratory animals and in vivo studies were also included. In addition, the review excluded studies published before 2010 that may provide relevant information. According to Quave et al. (2012) some of the less accessible studies may be important to the understanding of the knowledge. However, it is clear that non-scientific or scientific sources not in English or French or contained in other search engines (semantic scholar, Web of Science etc.) may contain important ethnoveterinary information that this review would have omitted. Perhaps further reviews should focus particularly on these sources. It is likely that frequently studied plant species appear more promising than less frequently studied species (Mayer et al., 2014). Accordingly, plants including Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth, Echinops kebericho, Burkea africana, Balanites aegyptiaca, Cordia myxa, Bombax costatum, Pterocarpus erinanceus, Millettia ferruginea (Hochest) Bak, Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepern Timler appeared less promising, although they are an integral part of the traditional medicine. Among the African countries, Benin is strongly represented in this review, with a total of 16 articles (20.78%) or a quarter of the papers treated, followed by Ethiopia (12.99%), Cameroon and Nigeria (10,39%) while the other countries are represented by only one or two publications. This highlights the need for ethnoveterinary research on the African continent. Due to the diversity of study programs and inconsistency or even missing data, non-detailed information on the use of medicinal plants for veterinary purposes was not available in most of the publications. Although the method of preparation and the routes of administration may strongly influence the therapeutic efficacy, this information is only reported in a fragmentary way by rural populations in half of the publications processed. Only a few articles (about 8%) are targeted (Jeruto et al., 2011; Mbaya and Ibrahim, 2011; Nganso et al., 2011; Atto et al., 2016; Landoulsi, 2016; Chitura et al., 2019).
In addition, ethnoveterinary and ethnobotanical surveys are usually conducted in rural areas with wandering animals, which poses the problem of monitoring all parameters related to their health. Future surveys should provide detailed information on veterinary treatments to enrich ethnoveterinary knowledge and discuss the importance of their use in current pharmacology, veterinary medicine and clinical trials. This review focused primarily on the therapeutic options of medicinal plants. From this point of view, the relevance of possible toxicity and adverse effects or residues in cattle remains open. Nevertheless, the majority of plant species in this review are consumed by humans as spices, food products or pharmaceutical by-products. If these plant species are safe for ingestion in humans, it may be legitimate to transfer these results to other mammals with comparable equivalence. Under these circumstances, the risks to humans in terms of residues from products from food animals should be negligible.
Treatment of AAT with plants
AAT was the focus in the evaluated publications. In fact, Khaya senegalensis, Afzelia africana, Vitellaria paradoxa, Crossopteryx febrifuga, Cassia sieberiana, Vernonia amygdalina, and Crossopteryx febrifuga were the most used species (Shilema et al., 2013; Dassou et al., 2014; Dassou et al., 2015; Ogni et al., 2016; Azokou et al., 2016; Noudèkè et al., 2017). Medicinal plants such as Allium sativum, Annona senegalensis, Ximenia Americana, Detarium microcarpum, V. amygdalina, Guieria senegalensis, B. africana, P. erinanceus, B. costatum, Cissus quandrangularis, C. myxa, Securidaca longipedunculata, and Ocimum lamiifolium may be effective in the treatment of blood parasites such as trypanosoma. Abiodun et al. (2012) in the case of O. lamiifolium, the highest antitrypanosomal activity (LD 50= 2.08 ± 0.01 μg/ml) was shown using the leaves of Ocimum gratissimum Linn. (Labiatae) and a high selectivity index of 29. In addition, the extract of Trema orientalis (L.) Blume (Ulmaceae), Pericopsis laxiflora (Benth. Ex Baker) Meeuwen, Jatropha curcas Linn. (Euphorbiaceae), Terminalia catappa Linn. (Combretaceae) and Vitex doniana Sweet (Verbenaceae) showed remarkable antitrypanosomal activity with high selectivity indices (20-80) for trypanosomes. Plants used for disease control come from several different botanical families and vary from country to country. Thus, Abedo et al. (2013) and Ahamidé et al. (2017) recorded in their studies that plants of the Loranthaceae family are effective in the treatment of trypanosomiasis. According to Ogni et al. (2014), plants such as Prosopis africana, Acacia polyacantha, Combretum collinum, Crossopteryx febrifuga, K. africana, Zea mays, A. africana, C. sieberiana, D. microcarpum, K. senegalensis, Pseudocedrela kotschyi and X. americana are effective against trypanosomiasis according to their studies in Benin, but they did not specify the doses to be administered and the duration of treatment to have a satisfactory result. While the work of Okoye et al. (2012) on Annona senegalensis in Nigeria showed the effectiveness of this plant in the treatment of trypanosomiasis in laboratory rats. In the same direction, an acute and sub-acute toxicity study on extracts of the bark and root of A. senegalensis in laboratory rats revealed that the plant is relatively effective but should be used with caution at doses not exceeding 400 mg/kg. However, the extracts and constituents of X. americana have shown several biological activities including anti- trypanosomal (Siddaiah et al., 2011; Monte et al., 2012). The acute toxicity study of the extracts of the leaves and stem barks of this plant revealed an LD50 oral in rats higher than 5000 mg/kg. No toxicity or weight change was reported (p=0.05) (Siddaiah et al., 2011; Monte et al., 2012). These results suggest that X. americana is effective and has good pharmacological activity. This plant is suitable for clinical studies.
In the mini-review conducted by Fullas (2010) on Ethiopian medicinal plants, the author lists: Allium cepa, Phytolacca dodecandra, Clutea abyssinica, Clausena anisata, Rumex nepalensis, Verbascum sinaticum, and Salvadora persica as medicinal plants used against trypanosomiasis in animals without specifying the doses, routes of administration and parts of the plants used in the recipes. As for the experiments conducted by Olukunle et al. (2010) on Morinda morindiodes, Tithonia diversifolia and Acalypha wilkesiana to evaluate the antitrypanosomal activity in albino rats infected with Trypanosoma brucei brucei in Nigeria, these authors showed a decrease in parasitemia on the third day of treatment. On the other hand, Shilema et al. (2013) and Kidane et al. (2014) reported that Vernonia amygdalina serves simultaneously to treat animal trypanosomosis and to repel tsetse flies in their various studies. In the same direction, Shilema et al. (2013) found that garlic (Allium sativum) and Lepidium sativum were used to treat animal trypanosomiasis and repel tsetse flies in Amaro district in southern Ethiopia.
Verbascum sinaiticum Benth and Phytolacca dodecandra L. showed good pharmacological activity in the treatment of trypanosomiasis in cattle in three studies conducted in Ethiopia (Weldegerima et al., 2008; Yigezu et al., 2014). The work carried out by Odoh et al. (2010) in Nigeria on the study of the toxicity of Enantia chlorantha extracts against Trypanosoma cruzi trypanosomiasis in mice showed a good trypanosomal activity with the lethal dose LD 50= 4325 mg/kg.
Evaluation of information collection methods and techniques
The most promising plant species in this evaluation during the last 10 years have been obtained through endogenous knowledge (70.51%) and little on in vitro and in vivo activities. The studies of Bekele et al. (2012), Amuka et al. (2014), Chinsembu et al. (2014), Yigezu et al. (2014) and Ahamidé et al. (2017) are focused on a method of information collection, based on ancestral practices transmitted from generation to generation through knowledge from treatments administered to humans. It would be necessary that the complementary studies take into account the phytochemical screening, the acute toxicity activities, in vivo and in vitro to make available all the information on the use of these medicinal plants with multiple virtues.
The set of articles reviewed highlights that the rural population (71.42%) is the target of studies on ethnobotanical and ethnoveterinary surveys in the field of traditional human and veterinary medicine. The animal species targeted by these studies are mostly farm animals (67.53%) (Bum et al., 2011; Moreki, 2013; Chinsembu et al., 2014; Dassou et al., 2015; Chitura et al., 2019) and few laboratory animals (14.29%). Most of the recipes developed in these studies come from information provided by the rural population based on endogenous knowledge because they are not accompanied by laboratory experiments to verify the scientific nature of these practices. The lack of experimental data on the information collected during ethnoveterinary and ethnobotanical surveys causes problems with dosages, posology, duration of treatment, toxicity of substances and also on the phytochemical composition of plants, thus constituting major constraints to the development of traditional veterinary medicine.
Method of preparation of medicinal plants
Plants containing several bioactive metabolites may have very different actions depending on how they are prepared. The review showed that decoction (35.79%) and maceration (25.69%) are the main modes of preparation (Rahmatullah et al., 2010; Yédomonhan et al., 2012; Ahmed and Murtaza, 2015; Yapi and Zirihi, 2015; Diarra et al., 2016; Kouadio et al., 2016; Nga et al., 2016). The decoction allows to collect the most active principles and attenuates or cancels the toxic effect of certain recipes (Salhi et al., 2010). Cultural exchanges between ethnic groups could be one of the factors that favored the popularization of the different preparation methods (Dongock et al., 2018). The recipes of these preparations are monospecific or in association of several species (multispecific), which would allow to complete and reinforce the effectiveness. All the modes of preparation are employed for the sheets, with a clear predominance of the decoction. The other modes of preparation, i.e. infusion, fumigation, grinding, calcination, trituration, syrups, heating, extracts and dyeing are rarely used. Benamoud and Dilmi (2019), distinguish three main modes of preparation: decoction, infusion and maceration in the ethno-veterinary study of medicinal plants of the region of Dirrah in Algeria.
Parts of the medicinal plants used
All parts of plants are used for the preparation of recipes in traditional human and veterinary medicine. These parts can be roots, barks, leaves, fruits, seeds, bulbs, stems, flowers, sometimes the whole plant or others. In this review barks (50.20%) are the most used organs followed by leaves (19.27%) and then roots (14.45%). However, Gueye et al. (2012), Maroyi (2012), Mishra (2013), Dougnon et al. (2017), Kisangau et al. (2017), Matowa et al. (2020), Tembo et al. (2021) have also mentioned in the studies that leaves are the main parts of plants most used in traditional medicine. The works of Teklehaymanot, (2009), Djoueche et al. (2011), Amuka et al. (2014) and Feyera et al. (2017) found that roots and leaves are the most used plant organs in traditional medicine. The parts used also vary depending on the species and the diseases to be treated. Seeds, whole plant, fruit, young branches, seed oil, and powdered bark (Yadav et al., 2014) are sometimes necessary in the preparation of remedies. A single plant can be used to treat certain diseases as well as the combination of two or more. In the study conducted by Tiwari and Pande (2010) and Ghasemi et al. (2013), they reported that the seed is most used in traditional veterinary medicine. On the other hand the work of Habeeb (2010), Benamoud and Dilmi (2019) show that after the flowers and aerial parts, the leaves are the most used. Other studies show that it is the roots, fruits and leaves that are used in the treatment (Cho et al., 2010).
The parts used of the plant, the method of preparation, the route of administration and the post-harvest methods can be factors affecting the chemical composition of the plants. Environmental factors and harvesting procedures are likely to explain the variable efficacy of a medicinal plant in different studies as reported for Echinacea (Toselli and Gillam, 2009). Therefore, the comparison of the results of the studies is difficult especially because of the lack of information regarding the phytochemical composition and the material used. The future use of the pharmacopoeia in research must guarantee a well-defined quantity and quality of constituents in each medicinal plant (Guarrera et al., 2005). This information is to be taken with reservations, especially since the quantity and the parts of the plant which enter in the composition of these recipes are not known. All this causes problems of dosage (under- or overdosing) at the level of the animals (cattle) to be treated when the weight and the stage of the disease are involved.
Route of administration of medicinal plants
From this review, the main routes of administration of medicinal plants are: oral, cutaneous, nasal, topical and others. The most commonly used route is the oral route. The work of Maphosa and Masika (2010), Khatun et al. (2011), Moreki (2013), Mesfin et al. (2013) and Tekle (2014) justify that the oral route is more used. Some authors did not provide a precision on the routes of administration of the recipes. The lack of information on the absorption of herbal compounds administered orally and the effective concentrations in the case of AAT can be explained by the fact that research in traditional veterinary medicine is a relatively young science that has developed rapidly in recent years. On the other hand, in humans, information on Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) is almost totally available on toxicity studies (Malebo et al., 2009; Ashafa et al., 2012; Adamu et al., 2013; Ebiloma et al., 2017; Chechet et al., 2018) in vivo activities (Adeiza et al., 2010; Enyanwu et al., 2018; Mann and Ogbadoyi, 2012; Mesfin et al., 2013) and in vitro (Adeiza et al., 2010; Mann and Ogbadoyi, 2012; Tesfaye et al., 2015; Enyanwu et al., 2018). In contrast, in cattle, the scientific knowledge is not sufficiently documented to be transferred to practical use.
Valuation of medicinal plants
Plants are valorized in two types of recipes that are mono-specific or made from several plants. The valorization of traditional medicine is thus of growing interest. According to WHO, nearly 80% of the population depends on traditional medicine. Considerable economic benefits in the development of traditional medicine and in the use of medicinal plants for the treatment of various diseases have been recorded (Dongock et al., 2018). This knowledge is generally bequeathed by the ancestors and mainly concerns the knowledge of the virtues of the plants used, for example, as inputs or recipes in traditional medicine (Zabouh, 2014). Some plant species have magical values or totems that must be respected within the communities at the risk of seeing their therapeutic effect ineffective (Badjaré et al., 2018; Kouassi et al., 2020). In this same context, some livestock farmers and sellers in livestock markets use medicinal fodder plants for the treatment of certain animal and human pathologies (Kouassi et al., 2020). The valorization of fodder species with pharmacological character requires the research of their effectiveness through in-depth phytochemical and pharmacological studies. The confident use of safe and effective traditional products can improve the health and productivity of livestock in terms of income and the quality of life of poor households owning animals. The development of ethno-veterinary medicine and the promotion of its rational use can improve its status, thus adding to the self-esteem of its users. This may help in the development of endogenous knowledge and its use in several fields of study such as pharmacology, chemistry, pharmacy, toxicology, phytochemistry, ethnobotany, taxonomy, anthropology and veterinary science (Yadav et al., 2014; Atolani et al., 2021). Other studies highlight the methods of identification of medicinal plant compounds (Table 1).
CONCLUSION
This review identified 62 plants belonging to 34 families in the management of African Animal Trypanosomiasis. The most commonly used parts of medicinal plants are barks, leaves and roots. Leguminosae, Maliaceae and Fabaceae represent the most cited families and include most plant species. The results of this review show that decoction and maceration are the main modes of preparation and administration is mainly by oral route. This synthesis highlights the relevance of research in Africa as a source of information and justification for the use of trypanocidal medicinal plants in the control of bovine trypanosomiasis. The identified medicinal plants can be used as a future and potential therapeutic option to treat African Animal Trypanosomiasis in cattle. This synthesis will therefore stimulate further ethnoveterinary research, in vitro, in vivo and clinical trials, to re-establish veterinary herbal medicine as an integral part of sustainable animal health treatments.
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.
REFERENCES
|
Abedo JA, Jonah OA, Abdullahi RS, Mazadu MR, Idris HY, Muhammed H, Shettima FT, Ombugadu S, Daudu M, Garba J (2013). Evaluation of trypanosomal activity of Tapinanthus globiferus and Gongronema latifolium on Trypanosoma congolense. Bioscience Research 10(1):20?28. |
|
|
Abiodun OO, Gbotosho GO, Ajaiyeoba EO, Brun R, Oduola AM (2012). Antitrypanosomal activity of some medicinal plants from Nigerian ethnomedicine. Parasitology Research 110(2):521?526. |
|
|
Adamu M, Naidoo V, Eloff JN (2013). Efficacy and toxicity of thirteen plant leaf acetone extracts used in ethnoveterinary medicine in South Africa on egg hatching and larval development of Haemonchus contortus. BMC Veterinary Research 9(38):1-9. |
|
|
Adeiza AA, Mohammed A, Mamman M (2010). Comparative in vivo evaluation of the trypanocidal activities of aqueous leaf, stem-bark and root extracts of Khaya senegalensis on Trypanosoma evansi. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 4(17):1770?1777. |
|
|
Adeneye AA, Ajagbonna OP, Adeleke TI, Bello SO (2006). Preliminary toxicity and phytochemical studies of the stem bark aqueous extract of Musanga cecropioides in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 105(3):374-379. |
|
|
Adou LMD, Jean-Marc ZBG, Kouadio B, Noël ZG (2018). Étude Ethnobotanique et Screening Phytochimique de Quelques Ptéridophytes de la Forêt Classée de Yapo-Abbé (Côte d'Ivoire). European Scientific Journal 4(33):173-187. |
|
|
Ahamidé IDY, Tossou MG, Dassou HG, Yedomonhan H, Houenon JG, Akoegninou A (2017). Usages des plantes parasites de la famille des Loranthaceae et variation du niveau de leur connaissance au Nord-Bénin?: Implications pour la gestion durable des hémiparasites. Afrique Science 13(5):222?235. |
|
|
Ahmed MJ, Murtaza G (2015). A study of medicinal plants used as ethnoveterinary: Harnessing potential phytotherapy in Bheri, district Muzaffarabad (Pakistan). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 159:209?214. |
|
|
Akouedegni CG, Tossa IG, Daga FD, Koudandé DO, Hounzangbé-Adoté MS (2012). Synthèse des connaissances sur les plantes galactogènes et leurs usages en République du Bénin. Bulletin de la Recherche Agronomies, pp. 24?35. |
|
|
Amuka O, Mbugua PK, Okemo PO (2014). Ethnobotanical survey of selected medicinal plants used by the Ogiek communities in Kenya against microbial infections. Ethnobotany Research and Applications 12:627?641. |
|
|
Ashafa AOT, Orekoya LO, Yakubu MT (2012). Toxicity profile of ethanolic extract of Azadirachta indica stem bark in male Wistar rats. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine 2(10):811?817. |
|
|
Atolani O, Olatunji GA, Adeyemi OS (2021). Cytotoxicity of Lapachol and Derivatized Analogues from Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. on Cancer Cell Lines. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering 46:5307-5312. |
|
|
Atto V, Koffi Dago P, Monteomo Gnate F, Adeoti Mansour F (2016). Phytochemical Screening of Sclerocarya birrea (Anacardiaceae) and Khaya senegalensis (Meliaceae), antidiabetic plants. International Journal of Pharmacy and Chemistry 2(1):1?5. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijpc.20160201.11 |
|
|
Ayrle H, Mevissen M, Kaske M, Nathues H, Gruetzner N, Melzig, M, Walkenhorst M (2016). Medicinal plants-prophylactic and therapeutic options for gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases in calves and piglets? A systematic review. BMC Veterinary Research 12(89):1?31. |
|
|
Azokou A, Achi YL, Koné MW (2016). Lutte contre les tiques du bétail en Côte d'Ivoire par des méthodes traditionnelles. Livest. Livestock Research for Rural Development 28(4):1-9 |
|
|
Badiaga M (2011). Etude ethnobotanique, phytochimique et activités biologiques de Nauclea latifolia Smith, une plante médicinale africaine récoltée au Mali, Université Blaise Pascal - ClermontFerrand II Press pp. 95-102. |
|
|
Badjaré B, Kokou K, Bigou-laré N, Koumantiga D, Akpakouma A, Adjayi MB, Abbey GA (2018). Étude ethnobotanique d'espèces ligneuses des savanes sèches au Nord-Togo: diversité, usages, importance et vulnérabilité. BASE. |
|
|
Bagayoko IF (2020). Etude des plantes médicinales utilisées dans la prise en charge de la diarrhée lors des épidémies (Choléra, EBOLA) [PhD Thesis]. University of Sciences, Techniques and Technology of Bamako Press pp. 27-49. |
|
|
Bayaga HN, Guedje NM, Biye EH (2017). Approche ethnobotanique et ethnopharmacologique des plantes utilisées dans le traitement traditionnel de l'ulcère de Buruli à Akonolinga (Cameroun). International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 11(4):1523?1541. |
|
|
Bekele D, Asfaw Z, Petros B, Tekie H (2012). Ethnobotanical study of plants used for protection against insect bite and for the treatment of livestock health problems in rural areas of Akaki District, Eastern Shewa, Ethiopia. Topclass Journal of Herbal Medicine 1(2):12-24. |
|
|
Benamoud AK, Dilmi A (2019). Étude ethno vétérinaire des plantes médicinales de la région de Dirrah (Bouira) [PhD Thesis]. Université Mohamed Boudiaf de M'Sila. |
|
|
Bum EN, Soudi S, Ayissi ER, Dong C, Lakoulo NH, Maidawa F, Seke PFE, Nanga LD, Taiwe GS, Dimo T (2011). Anxiolytic activity evaluation of four medicinal plants from Cameroon. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines 8(5S):130?139. |
|
|
Chechet GD, Yahaya J, Nok AJ (2018). In vitro and in vivo Anti-trypanosomal Potentials of Afrormosia laxiflora and Khaya senegalensis against Trypanosoma brucei brucei. Nigerian Veterinary Journal 39(3):269?284. |
|
|
Chinsembu KC, Negumbo J, Likando M, Mbangu A (2014). An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used to treat livestock diseases in Onayena and Katima Mulilo, Namibia. South African Journal of Botany 94:101?107. |
|
|
Chitura T, Shiba MR, Afful DB, Shai K, Muvhali PT, Tsotetsi-Khambule AM (2019). In vitro anthelmintic activity of seven medicinal plants used to control livestock internal parasites in chief Albert Luthuli municipality, South Africa. Livestock Research for Rural Development. 31(14). |
|
|
Cho SM, Shimizu M, Lee CJ, Han DS, Jung CK, Jo JH, Kim, YM (2010). Hypnotic effects and binding studies for GABAA and 5-HT2C receptors of traditional medicinal plants used in Asia for insomnia. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132(1):225?232. |
|
|
Cock IE, Selesho MI, Van Vuuren SF (2018). A review of the traditional use of southern African medicinal plants for the treatment of selected parasite infections affecting humans. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 220:250?264. |
|
|
Dassou GH, Adomou A, Yédomonhan H, Ogni AC, Tossou GM, Dougnon JT, Akoègninou A (2015). Flore médicinale utilisée dans le traitement des maladies et symptômes animaux au Bénin. Journal of Animal Plant Sciences 26(1):4036?4057. |
|
|
Dassou GH, Jéronime MAO, Adomou AC, Yédomonhan H, Tossou M, Favi A, Djidohokpin D, Gbèdolo E, Akoègninou, A. (2020). Plant and natural product based homemade remedies for veterinary uses by the Peul community in Benin. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. |
|
|
Dassou HG, Ogni CA, Yédomonhan H, Adomou AC, Tossou M, Dougnon JT, Akoègninou A (2014). Diversité, usages vétérinaires et vulnérabilité des plantes médicinales au Nord-Bénin. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 8(1):189?210. |
|
|
Dhama K, Tiwari R, Chakraborty S, Saminathan M, Kumar A, Karthik K, Wani MY, Amarpal SS, Rahal A (2014). Evidence based antibacterial potentials of medicinal plants and herbs countering bacterial pathogens especially in the era of emerging drug resistance: An integrated update. International Journal of Pharmacology 10(1):1-43. |
|
|
Diarra ML, Mariko M, Mbaye MS, Noba K (2016). Plantes médicinales utilisées dans le traitement traditionnel du paludisme à Bamako (Mali). International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 10(4):1534?1541. |
|
|
Diatta CD, Gueye M, Akpo LE (2013). Les plantes médicinales utilisées contre les dermatoses dans la pharmacopée Baïnounk de Djibonker, région de Ziguinchor (Sénégal). Journal of Applied Biosciences 70:5599-5607. |
|
|
Djoueche CM, Azebaze AB, Dongmo AB (2011). Investigation of plants used for the ethnoveterinary control of gastrointestinal parasites in Benoue region, Cameroon. Tropicultura 29(4):205?211. |
|
|
Dongock DN, Bonyo AL, Mapongmestem PM, Bayegone E (2018). Etude ethnobotanique et phytochimique des plantes médicinales utilisées dans le traitement des maladies cardiovasculaires à Moundou (Tchad). International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 12(1): 203?216. |
|
|
Dougnon TV, Déguénon E, Fah L, Lègba B, Hounmanou YMG, Agbankpè J, Amadou A, Koudokpon H, Fabiyi K, Aniambossou A (2017). Traditional treatment of human and animal salmonelloses in Southern Benin: Knowledge of farmers and traditherapists. Veterinary World 10(6):580?592. |
|
|
Doumbia H (2015). Place de la médecine traditionnelle dans la prise en charge thérapeutique des enfants de moins de 5 ans avant leur hospitalisation au CSRéf de Koutiala? Universite des Sciences des techniques et des Technologie de Bamako 102 p. |
|
|
Dzoyem JP, Tchuenteu RT, Mbarawa K, Keza A, Roland A, Njouendou AJ, Assob JCN (2020). Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Medicinal Plants Used in the Treatment of Livestock Diseases in Cameroon. In Ethnoveterinary Medicine pp. 175?209. |
|
|
Ebiloma GU, Igoli JO, Katsoulis E, Donachie AM, Eze A, Gray AI, Koning HP (2017). Bioassay-guided isolation of active principles from Nigerian medicinal plants identifies new trypanocides with low toxicity and no cross-resistance to diamidines and arsenicals. Journal of ethnopharmacology 202:256?264. |
|
|
El Alami A, Farouk L, Chait, A (2016). Etude ethnobotanique sur les plantes médicinales spontanées poussant dans le versant nord de l'Atlas d'Azilal (Maroc). Algerian Journal of Natural Products 4(2): 271?282. |
|
|
Enyanwu OM, Igwe OH, Emmanuel E (2018). Invivo Anti Trypanosomal Activity of Aqueous Extract of Azadirachta indica Leaves on Trypanosoma brucei brucei Infected Mice. International Journal of Infectious Diseases and Therapy 3(1):13?17. |
|
|
Fagbohoun L (2014). Etude chimique de colorants naturels et matériaux résineux traditionnels au Bénin dans le domaine artisanal. PhD Thesis, University of Abomey-Calavi, Press 295p. |
|
|
Feyera T, Mekonnen E, Wakayo BU, Assefa S (2017). Botanical ethnoveterinary therapies used by agro-pastoralists of Fafan zone, Eastern Ethiopia. BMC Veterinary Research 13(232):11. |
|
|
Fullas F (2010). Ethiopian medicinal plants in veterinary healthcare. A mini-review. Ethiopian e-Journal for Research and Innovation Foresight 2(1):48?58. |
|
|
Ghasemi PA, Momeni M, Bahmani M (2013). Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by Kurd tribe in Dehloran and Abdanan districts, Ilam province, Iran. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines 10(2):368?385. |
|
|
Giday M, Teklehaymanot T (2013). Ethnobotanical study of plants used in management of livestock health problems by Afar people of Ada'ar District, Afar Regional State, Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 9(1):8. |
|
|
Guarrera PM, Forti G, Marignoli S (2005). Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal uses of plants in the district of Acquapendente (Latium, Central Italy). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 96(3):429-444. |
|
|
Gueye M, Cisse A, Diatta CD, Diop S, Koma S (2012). Etude ethnobotanique des plantes utilisées contre la constipation chez les Malinké de la communauté rurale de Tomboronkoto, Kédougou (Sénégal). International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 6(2):773?781. |
|
|
Habeeb SM (2010). Ethno-veterinary and medical knowledge of crude plant extracts and its methods of application (traditional and modern) for tick control. World Applied Sciences Journal 11(9):1047-1054. |
|
|
Houndje EMB, Ogni CA, Noudeke N, Farougou S, Youssao AKI, Kpodekon TM (2016). Recettes ethno-vétérinaire à base de plantes médicinales utilisées pour le traitement de la fièvre aphteuse au Bénin. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 10(5):2090?2107. |
|
|
Houngnimassou HMA, Attindehou S, Salifou S, Koumodji KD, Salifou S (2017). Effets strongylicides in vitro de l'extrait aqueux de feuilles de Ficus exasperata Valh. 1805 (Moraceae). International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 11(3):1012?1020. |
|
|
Jeruto P, Mutai C, Lukhoba C, Ouma George (2011). Phytochemical constituents of some medicinal plants used by the Nandis of South Nandi district, Kenya. Journal of Animal Plant Sciences 9(3):1201?1210. |
|
|
Jiofack T, Fokunang C, Guedje N, Kemeuze V, Fongnzossie E, Nkongmeneck BA, Mapongmetsem PM, Tsabang N (2010). Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants of two ethnoecological regions of Cameroon. International Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences 2(3):60?79. |
|
|
Khatun MA, Harun-Or-Rashid M, Rahmatullah M (2011). Scientific validation of eight medicinal plants used in traditional medicinal systems of Malaysia: A review. American-Eurasian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 5(1):67?75. |
|
|
Kidane B, Van Der Maesen LJG, van Andel T, Asfaw Z (2014). Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants used by the Maale and Ari ethnic communities in southern Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 153(1):274?282. |
|
|
Kisangau DP, Kauti M, Mwobobia R, Kanui T, Musimba N (2017). Traditional knowledge on use of medicinal plants in Kitui County, Kenya. International Journal of Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine 4(36):1?10. |
|
|
Kouadio B, Djeneb C, Yvette FNB, Yao K, Basile YA, Cynthia YY, Alain AS, Noël ZG (2016). Étude ethnobotanique des plantes médicinales utilisées dans le Département de Transua, District du Zanzan (Côte d'Ivoire). Journal of Animal Plant Sciences 27(2):4230?4250. |
|
|
Kouassi AF, Camara MA, Aké-Assi E (2020). Approche ethnovétérinaire des plantes fourragères consommées par les petits ruminants sur les marchés à bétail de la ville d'Abidjan. Journal of Animal Plant Sciences 43(3):7458?7468. |
|
|
Kouchadé SA, Adjatin AR, Adomou AC, Dassou HG, Akoègninou A (2017). Phytochimiques des plantes médicinales utilisées dans la prise en charge des maladies infantiles au Sud-Bénin. European Scientific Journal 13(3):471?488. |
|
|
Koudoro YA, Cokou ADP, Diane B, Reine BS, Alain AG, Felicien A, Dominique SCK (2018). Métabolites secondaires et activités biologiques des extraits de l'écorce de tronc de Khaya senegalensis, une plante à usage vétérinaire récoltée au Bénin [Secondary metabolites and biological activities of the trunk bark extracts of Khaya senegalensis, a veterinary plant harvested in Benin]. International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies 23(4):441?450. |
|
|
Koulibaly A, Monian M, Ackah J, Koné MW, Traoré K (2016). Étude ethnobotanique des plantes médicinales?: Cas des affections les plus fréquentes d'une région agricole Daloa (Centre Ouest, Côte d'Ivoire). Journal of Animal Plant Sciences 31(2):5021?5032. |
|
|
Kplé KMT, Ibrahime S, Chiayé CYC, Akakpo-Akue J, Fofié Y, Ahon Gnamien M, Golly Koffi J, Kra Adou Koffi M (2020). Sickling Cells Inhibition and Radical Scavenging Activities of Zanthoxylum leprieurii's (GUILL) Bark Extracts?: Comparative Study. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International 32(11):42?50. |
|
|
Landoulsi A (2016). Etude chimiotaxonomique et activité biologique des métabolites secondaires des plantes du genre Eryngium [PhD Thesis, Université du Droit et de la Santé - Lille II, NNT: 2016LIL2S056ff. fftel-01755125 |
|
|
Liberati A, Altman DG, Tetzlaff J, Mulrow C, Gøtzsche PC, Ioannidis JP, Clarke M, Devereaux PJ, Kleijnen J, Moher D (2009). The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions?: Explanation and elaboration. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 62(10):e1?e34. |
|
|
Malebo HM, Tanja W, Cal, M, Swaleh, SAM, Omolo MO, Hassanali A, Séquin U, Hamburger M, Brun R, Ndiege IO (2009). Antiplasmodial, anti-trypanosomal, anti-leishmanial and cytotoxicity activity of selected Tanzanian medicinal plants. Tanzania Journal of Health Research 11(4):226-234. |
|
|
Mangambu MDD, Mushagalusa KF, Kadima NJ (2014). Contribution à l'étude photochimique de quelques plantes médicinales antidiabétiques de la ville de Bukavu et ses environs (Sud-Kivu, RD Congo). Journal of Applied Biosciences 75:6211?6220. |
|
|
Mann A, Ogbadoyi EO (2012). Evaluation of medicinal plants from Nupeland for their in vivo antitrypanosomal activity. American Journal of Biochemistry 2(1):1?6. |
|
|
Maphosa V, Masika PJ (2010). Ethnoveterinary uses of medicinal plants?: A survey of plants used in the ethnoveterinary control of gastro-intestinal parasites of goats in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Pharmaceutical Biology 48(6):697?702. |
|
|
Maroyi A (2012). Use of traditional veterinary medicine in Nhema communal area of the Midlands Province, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines 9(3):315?322. |
|
|
Martínez GJ, Luján, MC (2011). Medicinal plants used for traditional veterinary in the Sierras de Córdoba (Argentina)?: An ethnobotanical comparison with human medicinal uses. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 7(1):23. |
|
|
Matowa PR, Gundidza M, Gwanzura L., Nhachi CF (2020). A survey of ethnomedicinal plants used to treat cancer by traditional medicine practitioners in Zimbabwe. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies 20:1-13. |
|
|
Mayer M, Vogl CR, Amorena M, Hamburger M, Walkenhorst M (2014). Treatment of organic livestock with medicinal plants: A systematic review of European ethnoveterinary research. Complementary Medicine Research 21(6):375?386. |
|
|
Mbaya A W, Ibrahim UI (2011). In vivo and in vitro activities of medicinal plants on haemic and humoral trypanosomes?: A review. International Journal of Pharmacology 7(1):1?11. |
|
|
Mbaya A W, Ibrahim UI, God OT, Ladi S (2010). Toxicity and potential anti-trypanosomal activity of ethanolic extract of Azadirachta indica (Maliacea) stem bark?: An in vivo and in vitro approach using Trypanosoma brucei. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 128(2):495?500. |
|
|
Mbaya A W, Nwosu CO, Onyeyili PA (2007). Toxicity and anti-trypanosomal effects of ethanolic extract of Butyrospermum paradoxum (Sapotaceae) stem bark in rats infected with Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma congolense. Journal of ethnopharmacology 111(3):526?530. |
|
|
Mesfin K, Tekle G, Tesfay T (2013). Ethnobotanical study of traditional medicinal plants used by indigenous people of Gemad District, Northern Ethiopia. Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies 1(4):32?37. |
|
|
Mishra D (2013). Cattle wounds and ethnoveterinary medicine: A study in Polasara block, Ganjam district, Orissa, India 12(1):62?65. |
|
|
Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, Group P (2009a). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses?: The PRISMA statement. PLOS Medicine 6(7):e1000097. |
|
|
Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, Group P (2009b). Reprint-preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses?: The PRISMA statement. Physical therapy 89(9):873?880. |
|
|
Moktari MT, Mebarki M (2018). Valorisation chimique et biologique d'une plante médicinale utilisée dans la médecine traditionnelle Algérienne. PhD Thesis, Belhadj Bouchaib University Center of Aïn-Temouchent 65 p. |
|
|
Moreki JC (2013). Documentation of ethnoveterinary practices used in family poultry in Botswana. Vet World 6(1):18?21. https://doi.org/10.5455/vetworld.2013.18-21 |
|
|
Mungube EO, Vitouley HS, Allegye-Cudjoe E, Diall, O., Boucoum Z, Diarra B, Sanogo Y, Randolph T, Bauer B, Zessin KH, Clausen PH (2012). Detection of multiple drug-resistant Trypanosoma congolense populations in village cattle of south-east Mali. Parasites Vectors, 5(1):155. |
|
|
Nair MNB, Punniamurthy N (2016). Contemporary Relevance of Ethno-Veterinary Practices and a Review of Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants of Western Ghats. Ethnobotany of india 2:349. |
|
|
Nga EN, Pouka CK, Boumsong, PCN, Dibong SD, Mpondo EM (2016). Inventaire et caractérisation des plantes médicinales utilisées en thérapeutique dans le département de la Sanaga Maritime?: Ndom, Ngambe et Pouma. Journal of Applied Biosciences 106:10333?10352. |
|
|
Nganso YOD, Ngantchou IEW, Nkwenoua E, Nyasse B, Denier C, Hannert V, Schneider B (2011). Antitrypanosomal and cytotoxic activities of 22-Hydroxyclerosterol, a new sterol from Allexis cauliflora (Violaceae). Scientia Pharmaceutica 79(1):137?144. |
|
|
Noudèkè ND, Dotché I, Ahounou GS, Karim IYA, Farougou S (2017). Inventory of medicinal plants used in the treatment of diseases that limit milk production of cow in Benin. Journal of Advanced Veterinary and Animal Research 4(1):1?14. |
|
|
Odoh UE, Okwor IV, Ezejiofor M (2010). Phytochemical, trypanocidal and anti-microbial studies of Enantia chlorantha (Annonaceae) root. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Allied Sciences 7(4):22-31. |
|
|
Ogni CA, Kpodekon MT, Dassou HG, Boko CK, Koutinhouin BG, Dougnon JT, Youssao AKI, Yedomonhan H, Akoegninou A (2014). Inventaire ethno-pharmacologique des plantes utilisées dans le traitement des pathologies parasitaires dans les élevages extensifs et semi-intensifs du Bénin. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 8(3):1089. |
|
|
Ogni CA, Kpodékon TM, Dougnon TJ, Dassou H, Goussanou JSE, Boko C, Koutinhouin GB, Youssao KI, Akoegninou A (2016). Dominant bacterial diseases in the extensive and semi-intensive animal breeding and their treatment method by ethno veterinary medicine in Benin. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science 6(4):150?158. |
|
|
Ogunleye OO, Jatau ID, Natala AJ, Obaloto OO, Adetutu AE, Salifu AO (2019). Aqueous extract of fruit pulp of Adansonia digitata (Linn) ?: Phytochemical screening and in vitro antitrypanosomal effect. Nigerian Veterinary Journal 40(1):35?43. |
|
|
Okoli IC, Tamboura HH, Hounzangbe-Adote MS (2010). Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Sustainable Livestock Management in West Africa. Ethnoveterinary Botanical Medicine: Herbal Medicines for Animal Health 14:321-344. |
|
|
Okoye TC, Akah PA, Ezike AC, Okoye MO, Onyeto CA, Ndukwu F, Ohaegbulam E, Ikele L (2012). Evaluation of the acute and sub acute toxicity of Annona senegalensis root bark extracts. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine 5(4):277?282. |
|
|
Olukunle JO, Abatan MO, Soniran OT, Takeet ML, Akande FA, Biobaku KT, Jacobs EB (2010). In vivo antitrypanosomal evaluation of some medicinal plant extracts from Ogun State, Nigeria. Science World Journal 5(1):17?19. |
|
|
Quave CL, Pardo-de-Santayana M, Pieroni A (2012). Medical ethnobotany in Europe: from field ethnography to a more culturally sensitive evidence-based cam? Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine. |
|
|
Team RC (2013). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. |
|
|
Rahmatullah M, Ferdausi D, Mollik A, Jahan R, Chowdhury MH, Haque WM (2010). A survey of medicinal plants used by Kavirajes of Chalna area, Khulna district, Bangladesh. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines 7(2):91?97. |
|
|
Raikwar A, Maurya P (2015). Ethnoveterinary medicine?: In present perspective. "International Journal of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine 3(1):44?49. |
|
|
Sahli R (2017). Etude phytochimique de quelques plantes extrêmophiles tunisiennes et exploration de leurs activités biologiques [PhD Thesis]. University of Carthage (Tunisia). |
|
|
Salhi S, Fadli M, Zidane L, Douira A (2010). Etudes floristique et ethnobotanique des plantes médicinales de la ville de Kénitra (Maroc). Lazaroa 31:133-146. |
|
|
Sango R. (2006). Le rôle des plantes médicinales en médicine traditionnelle. Développement, Environnement et Sante, pp.6-12. |
|
|
Saxena M, Saxena J, Nema R, Singh D, Gupta A (2013). Phytochemistry of medicinal plants. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 1(6):168?182. |
|
|
Shiadeh MN, Niyyati M, Fallahi S, Rostami A (2016). Human parasitic protozoan infection to infertility?: A systematic review. Parasitology Research 115(2):469?477. |
|
|
Shiferaw S, Muktar Y, Belina D (2015). A review on trypanocidal drug resistance in Ethiopia. Journal of Parasitology and Vector Biology 7(4):58?66. |
|
|
Shilema A, Zerom K, Mussa A (2013). Ethnoveterinary practices against animal trypanosomosis in Amaro district, Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 2(7):238?241. |
|
|
Siddaiah MJ, Souris K, Janapati YK, Kumar PV (2011). Phytochemical screening and anti diabetic activity of methanolic extract of leaves of Ximenia americana in rats. International Journal of Innovative Pharmaceutical Research 2(1):78?83. |
|
|
Soha SAS, Dougnon TJ, Ohouko FHO, Kpodekon MTT, Youssao AKI (2019). Activités biologiques et utilisations de Elaeis guineensis (Jacq) et de Khaya senegalensis (Desr) en médecine traditionnelle humaine et vétérinaire. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 13(1):525?542. |
|
|
Sowemimo AA, Fakoya FA, Awopetu I, Omobuwajo OR, Adesanya SA (2007). Toxicity and mutagenic activity of some selected Nigerian plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 113(3):427?432. |
|
|
Tadesse B, Mulugeta G, Fikadu G, Sultan A, Nekemte E (2014). Survey on ethno-veterinary medicinal plants in selected Woredas of east Wollega zone, western Ethiopia. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare 4(17):97?105. |
|
|
Tekle Y (2014). An ethno-veterinary botanical survey of medicinal plants in Kochore district of Gedeo zone, southern nations nationalities and peoples regional state (SNNPRs), Ethiopia. Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research 3(4):433?445. |
|
|
Teklehaymanot T (2009). Ethnobotanical study of knowledge and medicinal plants use by the people in Dek Island in Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 124(1):69?78. |
|
|
Tembo N, Lampiao, F, Mwakikunga A, Chikowe I (2021). Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used for cervical cancer management in Zomba District, Malawi. Scientific African 13:e00941. |
|
|
Tesfaye A, Terefe G, Giday M, Shibeshi W (2015). Invivo Anti-Trypanosomal Activity of the Leaf Extracts of Albizia Schimperiana (Fabaceae) Against Trypanosoma congolense Infection in Mice. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology 5(171):2161?1459. |
|
|
Tiwari L, Pande PC (2010). Ethnoveterinary medicines in Indian perspective: Reference to Uttarakhand, Himalaya. 9(3):611?617. |
|
|
Toselli F, Matthias A, Gillam, EM (2009). Echinacea metabolism and drug interactions?: The case for standardization of a complementary medicine. Life Sciences 85(3?4):97?106. |
|
|
Traoré L, Yaro VSO, Soudré A, Ouédraogo-Koné S, Ouédraogo D, Yougbaré B, Zoma BL, Hien M, Guissou ML, Traoré A (2020). Indigenous knowledge of veterinary medicinal plant use in cattle treatment in southwestern Burkina Faso (West Africa). South African Journal of Botany 128:189?199. |
|
|
Weldegerima B, Abula T, Ragunathan M (2008). Research Article Ethno-Veterinary Use of Medicinal plants by Traditional Healers in Dabat District, Northwestern Ethiopia. Pharmacognosy Magazine 4(15):93. |
|
|
WHO (2002). Traditional Medicine Strategy 2002-2005. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. P 74 (document reference WHO/EDM/TRM/2002.1) |
|
|
Yadav SS, Bhukal RK, Bhandoria MS, Ganie SA, Gulia SK, Raghav TBS (2014). Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants of Tosham block of district Bhiwani (Haryana) India. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science 4(6):40?48. |
|
|
Yapi AB, Zirihi GN (2015). Etude ethnobotanique des Asteraceae médicinales vendues sur les marches du district autonome d'Abidjan (Côte d'Ivoire). International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 9(6):2633?2647. |
|
|
Yaya AK, Wotto DV, Konfo TRC, Agbangnan DCP, Sohounhloue DCK (2015). Phytochemical screening, antibacterial and anti-radical activities of Daniellia oliveri trunk bark extracts used in veterinary medicine against gastrointestinal diseases in Benin. International Journal 3(10):1190?1198. |
|
|
Yédomonhan H, Houenon GJ, Akoègninou A, Adomou AC, Tossou GM, Van der Maesen LJG (2012). The woody flora and its importance for honey production in the Sudano-Guinean zone in Benin. Kouadio 2(3):64?74. |
|
|
Yigezu Y, Haile DB, Ayen WY (2014). Ethnoveterinary medicines in four districts of Jimma zone, Ethiopia: Cross sectional survey for plant species and mode of use. BMC Veterinary Research 10(76):12. |
|
|
Yusuf OK, Ekanem JT (2010). Studies of phytochemical constituents and anti-trypanosomal properties of fermented wheat germ and garlic bulbs extract on Trypanosoma brucei infected rats. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 4(19):2016?2020. |
|
|
Zabouh KW (2014). Étude des plantes médicinales utilisées en ethnomédecine vétérinaire dans la région des savanes du Lomé (Togo). Th. Doc. Pharmacie, Université de Lomé Press. |
|
Copyright © 2024 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article.
This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
