This paper will review and evaluate studies from past to present on job satisfaction concept and theories as well as the relationship between gender and job satisfaction. Concordantly, first studies on job satisfaction started in 1930s. Till date, over 3000 research works have been made. There are two reasons for this. The first one is satisfaction affects important behaviors expressed in many establishments. The second one is satisfaction has a place in increasing individuals’ efficiency. Consequently, to increase the efficiency of both an establishment and an individual, the factors that affect job satisfaction should be analysed and determined (Kepo?lu, 2011). Developing oneself and efforts to satisfy oneself have become priorities throughout history. Talents and skills which people display in their job environments make them precious. Also, people improve themselves and their work by being satisfied with the work they do. If the work environment is better, it leads to social and economical satisfaction. Perception style of people, their expectations from what they do, value judgement, faith and manners are important for job satisfaction. This perception varies from person to person. The wages that are enough a person cannot be said to be enough for another person in the same work place. This is because a person who is satisfied with his/her wages can become unsatisfied if his/her colleagues earn more. In this situation, personal demands as well as environmentel factors have an effect.

It is known that preferring right jobs where one can be more succesful has an effect on increasing one’s satis-faction (Karata? and Di?erleri, 2013). Different definitions have been given by various researchers on this. These definitions include: ‘A job is a person’s identification’. Job performance and satisfaction are the processes of this identification’ (Sudak, 2013). ‘Job satisfaction is a staff’s reaction to job or organisation’ (Kepo?lu, 2011). ‘Job satisfaction which expresses being well connected to a job is a positive or negative evaluation style related to work or work position’ (Gams?z et al., 2013). After a particular time, people spend a large  amount of their time daily at work. In this regard, people, who acquire satisfaction from their job both economically and psychologically, are very happy. So job satisfaction plays a crucial role in one’s life economically and psychologically (Can et al., 2009).

Many researchers have conducted many studies and brought theories about human behaviour. In the literature, although job satisfaction and motivation theories are discussed in different catagories, generally they fall into the headings of ‘’scope theories’’ and ‘process theories’. Scope theories intend to explain which factors or factor groups have an effect on job satisfaction. They include Hierarchy of needs theory, ERG theory, two factors theory, Mc Clelland’s achievement motivation theory, Dougles McGregor’s X and Y theory and Z theory. While process theories include: Expectancy theory, equity theory and goal setting theory (Munzur, 2012). Hierarchy of needs theory developed by Maslow associates job satisfaction with needs, which are suplied hierarchally. Maslow determined human needs according to impor-tance. The most important ones are physiological needs, followed by safety, social needs (love/belonging), esteem and self actualisation needs. Job satisfaction issue, according to Maslow’s theory, is explained as follows: all needs are bounded and when a need comes up, the others do not disappear; so we must supply all needs as much as possible (Hicks and Gullet, 1981).

One of the defficiencies of Maslow is his acceptance of job satisfaction as one dimensional subject and developing his theory in this direction. According to Vroom’s expectancy theory,  an individual behaves to supply his needs. So behaviors tend to affect supplying needs. Considering the differences in social needs among people, unlike Maslow, Vroom decided that people can have different goals to supply their needs. Vroom developed two models: ‘extraction’ and ‘multiplication’ models. Both models consider job satisfaction as a function of environmental need and nature’s eligibility degree. Like Maslow, while developing his theory, Vroom considered job satisfaction in one dimension and developed it in this direction. Equality theory developed by Adams depends on Social comparison theory by Festinger and his cognitive dissonance theory developed in 1955. In his theory, Adam determined job satisfaction as staff’s balance of input-output. Also, when we com-pare him with Maslow and Vroom, Adams emphasized that job satisfaction is affected by social factors. According to Adams, staff bring along their personal inputs such as intelligence, information, experience, talent, health and effort. In accordance with that, staff acquire some output such as increase of statute and wage, various social welfare, promotion, job security, conditioning and executive authority. If there is inequality between input and output, there can be dissatisfaction and stress. Like Maslow and Vroom, Adams considers job satisfaction in one dimension.

The difference between Herzberg’s ‘’two factor theory’’ and the others is as follows. Maslow, Vroom and Adams considered their theories in one dimension and developed their theories according to this belief. But, Herzberg says that job satisfaction means that there is no job dissatisfaction. These two terms are not opposite to each others because human needs are caused by different factors. The factors which affect job satisfaction are seperated into two groups as individual and organizational. Major individual factors are age, gender, educational level, marital status, work status, length of service, social cultural environment and personality structure; major organizational factors are job and its qualification, management and audit, wage, possibility of progression and relevance, physical conditions of workplace and social environment of workplace (Tözün, 2008; Aksu, 2002). Different names and numbers of factors which affect job satisfaction have been detected from various resources during the research. For example, Özday? (1991),  in his research on private and state high schools, seperated job satisfaction factors into two groups: internal and external factors. Koyuncu (2004), in the research on PE teachers at state and private high schools, seperated these factors into two: personal and organizational factors of work and work place. Also, another example is Jenkinson and Chapman (1990), who based on their research on job satisfaction factors at the primary schools in Jamaika, seperated these factors into three groups. The first group is type and size of the school, the second is feature about the school and the last one is personal and occupational features. From these factors, three ideas emerge from the results about age variance, which is highly correlated with job satisfaction.

According to the first opinion, the relationship between age and satisfaction can be likened to ‘U’ shape. It means that in early years, satisfaction is high, in middle years, it is low and then in old ages, it is high again. According to the second opinion, they are directly proportional. The older people get, the more satisfied they are. According to the last opinion, until a certain age, they have direct proportional increase and than it starts to decrease (S??r? and Bas?m, 2006). While some researchers, who studied another factor (educational level), believe that there is a negative corrolation between these two factors; the others believe there is no correlation at all. The reason for this is that these two factors are considered at different levels and they change according to age. Education varies according to levels (like high school gradute or university graduate). Also, being a new graduate can be very important. A young fresh university graduate can get to work and see his workmate who is a more experienced high school graduate. So, the satisfaction level can be high or low. It is not possible to give an accurate statement about the correlation between job satisfaction and education because there are many factors affecting them, such as educational level, age and experience (Aliyeva, 2001). Research on pyhsical conditions of workplace, which is one of the organisational factors, shows that employees prefer places which are not dangerous or irritating. They do not want extreme factors such as high temperature, light and noise (Robbins, 1996).

From the viewpoint of employees, dissatisfaction can come as a result of poor conditions, instruments, lack of economical benefits and social regard. These possible problems do not only cause  dissatisfaction in individuals, but also make them to look for new jobs. Naturally, negative impact of an employee’s dissatisfaction reflects in his/her family and country. Thus, job satisfaction is an important subject to be considered in terms of both individual and national economy (Belli et al., 2012).

This work aims to reveal the correlation between job satisfaction and gender of sport managers in Anatolian part of Istanbul. The short version of ‘’Minnesota Jobs Satisfaction’’ questionnaire was applied to 50 sport  managers  who  work  in  the  Anatolian  part  of Istanbul. The questionnaire was administered to spot whether job satisfaction levels vary according to the characteristic features of sports managers and their gender. The abbreviation of the questionnaire in Turkish is M?DA and in English it is MSQ. It was developed by David et al. (1967). The questionnaire has been used numerous times both in Turkey and around the world. The validity and reliability tests of the questionnaire were conducted with Cronbach- Alpha tests, and the Alpha value was 0.9171. After evaluation of data with Spss programme, frequency analysis and average score calculations were made. Differences among satisfac-tion level rate according to gender groups were analysed with Kruskal Wallis test, which is one of the non parametric tests with 0.05 significance level. Besides the managers’ job satisfaction scores, the five factors of human resources and job satisfaction were calculated. These factors are ‘organisation and work relations’, ‘motivation and creating proper job environment’, ‘career planning’, ‘evaluation of success’, ‘wages’.

Success evaluation of general job satisfaction and the five factors of human resources management

The private sporting establisment managers are really close to job satisfaction level in the resources management factor (Table 1).

 

Motivation and creation of proper job environment

The private sporting establisment managers are satisfied with the motivation and proper environment at workplace and are getting closer to high level of satisfaction (Table 2).

 

Career planning

The private sporting establisment managers are not satisfied with the career planning in their establisments (Table 3).

 

Wages

The private sporting establisment managers are not satisfied with wage policy in their establisments (Table 4).

 

Organisation and work relations

The private sporting establisment managers are satisfied with the organisation and work relations in their establisments (Table 5).

 

 

General job satisfaction

The private sporting establisment managers are neither satisfied nor unsatisfied with the environment of their workplace . In other words, they are neutral (Table 6).

 

 

Mann Whitney Test related to the difference between the sport managers’ average evaluation of success scores and their gender

Significant difference between the managers’ genders and average rates of job satisfaction has not been ob-served (p>0.05) (Table 7). The point is a sport manager who is rewarded  beacuse  of  his  over-achievement  can see equality in awards given. We can see the importance of equality in Adams’ ‘’Equality Theory’’. The sport managers who have similar jobs with smilar inputs and outcomes want equality.

                                                                                                                    Table 7. Mann Whitney Test related to difference between sport managers average evaluation of success scores and their genders.

 

 

Mann Whitney Test related to the difference between the sport managers’ average creating proper job environment scores and their gender

There is no significant difference between the  managers’ genders and average rates of creating proper job environment (p>0.05) (Table 8). It is really important to know the kinds of factors that affect job satisfaction and the level of satisfaction. So, workers can be replaced properly based on their talents and potential, which will make their creativity and productiveness to increase. By means of such kind of guiding practice, not only workers’ satisfaction but also peace and harmony would be achieved in the organisation. Conditions have an effect on job  satisfaction.  Sport  managers  should  not  ignore issues such as light, noise, air conditioner, cleaning and instruments.

 

 

Mann Whitney Test related to the difference between the sport managers’ average level of planning career scores and their genders

There is no significant difference between the managers’ genders and average rates of planning career (p>0.05) (Table 9). People learn faster by practising. So, top managers should not ignore their responsibility; they should allow their workers to work autonomously and make decisions. If it is not done, when the workers are promoted and become managers, they will not be able to make decision and so will cop out.

 

Mann Whitney Test related to the difference between the sport managers’ average level of wages scores and their genders

There is no significant difference between the managers’ genders and average rates of wage (p>0.05) (Table 10). Herzberg considers that as a motivating factor, wage is an external factor more than content of work. So, it can be said that the effect of wage can change according to internal or external motivation of managers. But, because external factors have  a  little  effect  on  level  of  commit- ment, it has been proved that there is not any significiant correlation between wage and job satisfaction by many researchers.

 

 

Mann Whitney Test related to the difference between the sport managers’ average level of organisation and work relations scores and their genders

There is no significant difference between the managers’ genders and average rates of organisation and work relations (p>0.05) (Table 11). The managers are satisfied with the organisation and work relations in their establisments. In a private sport establishment, proper distribution and specification of task and responsibility are only due to good organisation. The relations among the staff and between top managers and wrokers can be seen obviously on schemas. Workers know who they order or whom they take order from. When the person responsible for a duty is needed,  he/she is to find. Organsation lets us carry outour responsibilities easily, specifies hierarchy and arranges task and responsibility limits. A good organisation allows one to keep a close watch on innovation, and catches up technical pro-gression. Workers at the same work place engage with one another. A worker who knows well what he does, does more valid and consistent mental study. He is motivated to be more creative and positive.

 

Mann Whitney Test related to the difference between the sport managers’ average level of general job satisfaction scores and their genders

There is no significant difference between the managers’ genders and  average  rates  of  general  job  satisfaction

 

 

 

(p>0.05) (Table 12). In sport establishments, revealing talents, enterprising work, rotation, increaing of emotional support between co-workers, making better performance,increasing educational activities, demanding ideas from worker to solve a problem, and increasing motivation have a positive effect on managers and increase their loyalty and satisfaction.

 

One of the factors which affect job satisfaction is gender. The gender of the employees can casue changes in evaluating the work atmosphere and forming behaviours towards the job. In the research on the correlation between gender and job satisfaction of the workers at Provincial Directorate of Youth and Sport in Aegean Region, there is no meaningful distinction (p>0,05). Bozkurt and Bozkurt (2008) did not see any meaningful distinction between job satisfaction and gender in the education sector. Bilgic (1998) saw that there was no meaningful distinction between gender and general job satisfaction from his research on personal factors and job satisfaction done with different workers from different establishments. Keser (2005) did nott find any meaningful distinction between gender and job satisfaction from his research with automotive sector. Çelen et al. (2004) studied job satisfaction at Ankara Onkology Education Hospital and did not find any meaningful distinciton. Gencay (2007) did not find any meaningful correlation between gender and  job  satisfaction  from  his  research with P.E teachers. Mason (1994), in a research on gender effects on job satisfaction, found there was no meaningful correlation between gender and job satis-faction. This research is in parallel with our findings. Loscocco (1990), Ozdevecioglu (2003) and Brush et al. (1987) found out important correlation between gender and job satisfaction. Keser (2006) found out high correlation between gender and job satisfaction from his research with call center workers. According to the research conducted by Clark (1993) and Bugendal (1966), it was found out that the level of job satisfaction of female employees was higher than that of the male employees.This result suggests that female employees care more about the social factors related to work. These findings conflict with our findings. However, in general, there is no distinction between gender and job satisfaction. A??k (2010) believes that the main reason why  job satisfaction levels are reduced among women is the obstacle they face in their careers. In addition, the conflicts arising from their responsibilities at work and their family life are said to be other factors reducing their job satisfaction levels.

 

Conclusion

Gender factor does not have an affect on sports managers’ general job satisfaction as well as the five factors of human resources management. This finding supports  Loscocco’s (1990) finding which says both genders have same level in similar circumstances. In research, they have same workplace and similar conditions; so we can say they have smilar level of satisfaction. The private sport managers are close to be satisfied with the evaluation of their success. They are satisfied with motivation and creating proper workplace and they are getting closer to high level of satisfaction. They are not satisfied with planning career in their establisments, are not satisfied with wage politics, are satisfied with organisation and relations and lastly they are neither happy nor unhappy about their workplace. They are neutral.

It is a fact that satisfied administrators, who have organi-zational commitment to their sports establishments, no matter their gender perform well. Especially, in planning careers and wages, there must be an enhancement without looking their genders. Career planning is a process of systematically matching career goals and indi-vidual capabilities with  opportunities  for  their  fulfillment.

Career planning encourages individuals to explore and gather information, which enables them to syn­thesize, gain competencies, make decisions, set goals and take action. It is a crucial phase of human resource development that helps the employees in making strategy for work-life balance

 Wage is important in terms of increasing attraction to work, keeping staff, increasing staff’s motivation and their positive attitudes. Research shows that workers perform better when they earn due to their performance. So, when establishments have positive thoughts about fair wage,and wage satisfaction is high, we can see positive changes on performances.

 

The author(s) have not declared any conflict of interests.